Theses and Dissertations (Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development)

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Accessibility of agricultural extension services and its impact on agricultural output a case study of Zambia
(University of Pretoria, 2024-02-18) Loki, Olwethu; Selomane, Odirilwe; hassan.arif@tuks.co.za; Arif, Hassan
Access to extension services plays a crucial role in connecting innovators with end-users across various sectors of the global economy. In the realm of agriculture, extension services act as a vital link between laboratories and farmers, translating complex technical language into a language comprehensible to farmers. However, the accessibility of extension services has been negatively affected by a low extension agent-to-farmer ratio, depriving farmers of the services they need. Furthermore, the long distances farmers often undertake to reach extension services (and vice versa) exacerbate the issue, limiting their overall access to extension services. It is imperative for farmers to have access to effective extension services since these services are essential for disseminating information and knowledge about technologies that can enhance crop production and promote diversity in farming practices. This study uses Zambia as a case study to investigate the relationship between distance to the nearest extension offices (as a proxy for access to extension services), and crop diversity and production. The study uses data from the Rural Agriculture and Livelihood Survey (RALS) which covers 6,352 households and 66 districts across Zambia. The study employed a beta regression and Cobb-Douglas function to analyse the correlation between distances covered by farmers to reach extension offices and both crop diversity and production quantity, respectively. The lack of significant effect of distance to extension offices on crop diversity and crop production observed in this study suggests that extension services have no significant effect on both crop production and diversity. This could be due to the ineffectiveness of extension services attributed to the low ratio of extension agents to farmers, underscoring the importance of addressing this imbalance for improved effectiveness. However, the study observed a strong positive correlation between distances to tarmacs and crop diversity with every kilometre away from a tarmac resulting in a 0.001 (P-Value: 0.8256) unit increase in the crop diversity index suggesting the desire for food security and self-sufficiency among households located far from tarmacs. The study also highlights several factors influencing crop diversity and production, including household size, education, cultivated hectares, gender, age and farmer group membership. In conclusion, the study emphasizes that distance to extension services alone does not significantly affect crop production and diversity. It calls for policy interventions to enhance the efficacy of the extension system by increasing the number of extension agents. Additionally, recognizing the influence of tarmacs and markets on crop production, policies should also consider strategies to improve farmers' proximity to these essential facilities.
Factors influencing saving patterns of smallholder farmers in savings groups in Sironko district, Uganda
(University of Pretoria, 2025-02) Makhura, Moraka N.; u16081693@tuks.co.za; Molaba, Mohlahli
Savings are important in low-income countries such as Uganda where small-scale farmers use the little money they have to save for future shocks and investments. The study described socio-economic characteristics, saving approaches and patterns of small-scale farmers in Sironko district in Uganda. The main objective was to analyse the behaviour of smallholder farmers’ saving patterns in savings groups. The study analyzed primary data collected from 126 sample respondents from Sironko district. Descriptive statistics revealed male dominance in these groups by 90%. Most respondents reported having large household sizes of 8 to 10 members. Meanwhile 39% use the money received from the sale of farms to save, about 31% of members reported that their main purpose of saving is to invest in education. The study revealed saving approaches of these small farmers to include money saved in savings group, purpose of saving, sources of money, method of saving, method of earning money and share out month. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), a data reduction method was applied to variables to discern the correlations in these savings approaches that led to the development of indexes. The results showed three distinct patterns. The first pattern called Reserve pattern loaded with high savings (-0.49), which was negatively associated with the purpose to save to be an agricultural business (0.39) and the share out from October to November (0.44). This suggested a trade-off between savings and investment in agriculture. The second pattern, Income pattern, loaded with farm sales as a source of savings (0.49) and receiving cash income (0.41). Thirdly, a different way of saving which is savings group (SG) was labeled the Institutional pattern. Ordinary least square (OLS) was used to identify the factors that influence saving patterns (patterns derived from saving approaches). Selected socioeconomic and savings group characteristics were regressed against these patterns. Age group showed a significant positive association with reserve pattern and income pattern, indicating the importance of age in saving patterns. The number of sources of income required showed a negative relationship with the reserve pattern, institutional pattern, and overall saving pattern. The religious discrimination associated with these saving groups is supported by the negative influence of religion on the reserve pattern, the institutional pattern and the overall saving pattern. The cyclic share out has a positive effect on the reserve pattern and the income pattern. It has also shown great association of large end-of-year savings withdrawals with improved saving patterns. The number of community groups had a negative relationship with the reserve pattern, but a positive relationship with the institutional pattern. The worth of returns on savings was negatively associated with the income pattern, but positively influenced by the institutional pattern. The findings suggest a comprehensive approach to the savings behaviour of smallholders in savings groups. Age plays an important role in saving patterns. The members require age-appropriate financial literacy. Different sources of money require more education about use and management of finance. There is a need for support in the management and use of shared money to improve saving patterns. Community programs, including those led by religious organizations, are needed to promote economic development and raise public awareness of the importance and benefits of savings groups. More research is needed to examine region-specific studies, different savings methods, and longitudinal studies to effectively address the financial challenges faced by smallholder farmers.
Farmers’ perceptions and adoption of digital technologies as information sources in Tshwane, South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2024-08) Loki, Olwethu; chantellemogashane2@gmail.com; Mogashane, Chantelle
This study explores the challenges that smallholder farmers face in South Africa due to limited resources, finances, and access to advanced production technologies, which impede the adoption of good agricultural practices. A mixed- method research approach was used, involving semi-structured questionnaires with 117 farmers and a focus group discussion. Descriptive analysis and frequency counts identified farmers' socioeconomic characteristics, while thematic analysis was applied to the focus group discussions. Binary regression and independent t-tests were used to analyze adoption data. The results showed that 38% of farmers preferred using the internet for information, followed by YouTube (24%) and the Farming Solutions App (6%). While 50% were neutral about whether digital technologies were superior to traditional methods, 37.7% found them easy to use and 44.6% viewed them as time-efficient. Binary regression indicated that access to extension services positively influenced the adoption of digital technologies. The t-test showed no differences in agricultural incomes of adopters and non-adopters of digital technologies, suggesting that adopters used digital tools as supplementary sources rather than primary ones. The study concludes that smallholder farmers are gradually adopting digital technologies despite low and uneven rates. Extension officers play a critical role in promoting these technologies, but traditional information sources remain vital in farming practices. To enhance digital technology adoption in smallholder agriculture, supportive policies should be implemented to improve infrastructure, digital literacy, and financial support. Additionally, impact monitoring, public-private partnerships, and community engagement through farmer cooperatives are essential to advance technology integration and address farmers' challenges.
Policy options to transform food systems for affordable healthy diets in South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2024-11) Fitawek, Wegayehu; Loki, Olwethu; u19116358@tuks.co.za; Mgweba, Lukhangele
Current food systems fail to deliver nutritious and affordable diets, making healthy diets unaffordable for many South Africans. Moreover, South Africa does not have a food system policy but different policies that address specific components of food security. The study investigated cost-effective, feasible and adaptable policy options (‘no-regrets’) to transform South Africa’s food system for affordable healthy diets in South Africa. A systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to identify publications addressing food systems' transformation towards affordable healthy diets. This was followed by another systematic review, which focused on extracting potential policy options to address South Africa’s food system. Lastly, 62 food system stakeholders were purposively sampled to participate in an online survey to vote for policies they perceived as essential for transforming the food system. Thematic analyses was used to analyse the qualitative data collected. Twenty food systems transformation reports were found and seventy percent of the reports focused on a global level, while 30% focused on Africa. In the online survey most participants preferred agricultural policy options accounting for 25% of the no-regrets policy options. The supply chain and governance policy options were the second most preferred with 20% each, with regulatory and education policy options ranked third and fourth, with 15% and 10% respectively. The financial and research, technology and innovation policy options were the least preferred by the participants with 5% each. Ultimately, the study yielded 20 ‘no-regrets’ policy options to transform South Africa’s food systems. The study concluded the transformation of South Africa’s food system to deliver affordable healthy diets has no simple solution. A complex, multi-dimensional strategy involving all food system actors is required.
The impact of participating in the biodiversity economy on household food security : a Gonarezhou National Park Communities’ case study
(University of Pretoria, 2024-10-28) Ntuli, Herbert; Fitawek, Wegayehu; mwansa.mwansa124@gmail.com; Mwansa, Mwansa
Biodiversity conservation initiatives are often hailed as essential for safeguarding natural resources, yet they frequently come at the expense of communities reliant on these ecosystems for sustenance. Literature extensively documents the displacement of local populations to make way for protected areas, perpetuating poverty and social discord among the affected communities. Responding to these concerns, policymakers have increasingly turned to community-based natural resource management programmes, epitomised by initiatives like transfrontier conservation areas. Among these, the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA) stands as a prime example, spanning South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique since its establishment in 2002. Despite its inception, scant attention has been given to examining the impact of the TFCA on household-level food security. This study delved into the impact of the biodiversity economy within the Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) on local household food security. The study used descriptive statistics to characterise the households in the study communities, calculated five food security indicators to gain an understanding of the food security situation and employed the propensity score matching technique to conduct an impact analysis. The key findings of the study indicate that the communities are a patriarchal society with an average household head age of 50 years old. Their main livelihoods include agriculture, cross-border trade and casual labour including work in the biodiversity economy. The food security situation is poor, most households face food shortages during the agricultural lean season, lack productive assets, consume less than five of twelve food groups and engage in at least three harmful coping strategies to cope with insufficient food supply. Moreover, it is not surprising that the study found no direct impact of the park's existence on local communities' food security, as evidenced by statistically insignificant Average Treatment Effects on the Treated (ATT). This suggests that the park has fallen short of its intended goal of promoting local development. Possible explanations for this shortfall range from the park's limited success in attracting tourists and generating local economic opportunities to external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic. To bolster the park's performance and enhance its socioeconomic impact, policymakers must adopt a multifaceted approach. This could entail bolstering social protection policies, supporting agricultural livelihoods, and fostering tourism-based economic opportunities within the park's vicinity. By addressing these underlying challenges, policymakers can strive towards achieving the dual objectives of biodiversity conservation and sustainable local development within protected areas like the GNP.
The impact of trade openness on agricultural growth in South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2024-04-30) Ntuli, Herbert; u22580337@tuks.co.za; Chisakaitwa, Sibonginkosi
The major purpose is to analyse the relationship between trade openness and agricultural growth. The study employs the ARDL model to assess the influence of trade openness on agricultural growth. Major findings of this study confirm the impact of trade openness for agricultural growth in the long run but not in the short run. Among relevant variables such as foreign direct investment, institutional quality, and inflation; agricultural labour force has been found unimportant in this study. More so, foreign direct investment plays a crucial part in the expansion of the sector, but corruption control inhibits growth in the long run. Due to the insignificance of labour from this study results, South Africa should adopt a more capital-labour ratio in the sector to enhance agricultural involvement and engage both human and physical capital since the former can indirectly influence the latter. Therefore, trade openness can be considered a key aspect in supporting agricultural expansion through the accumulation of capital goods and the export of consumable agricultural products.
Impact of public agricultural expenditure on food availability in Lesotho
(University of Pretoria, 2024-02) Makhura, Moraka N.; u22911554@tuks.co.za; Kanono, Makabelo M.
Public Agricultural expenditure plays a huge role in boosting the effectiveness of the agricultural sector. It is also a great tool to curb food shortages. Lesotho signed the CAADP Declaration alongside other African countries in 2003 and reinstated it in 2014.The pledge was to increase the percentage share of the total budget allocated to agriculture to at least 10%. However, many countries were not in progress with this commitment. Current literature shows that consistent public agricultural expenditure improves food security, output, and economic growth in various parts of Africa. This study sought to contribute to this knowledge by determining the impact of public agricultural expenditure on cereal and livestock availability in Lesotho. Country-specific findings could help make cross-national comparisons and address issues related to unsatisfactory progress. The Autoregressive distributive lag model is used to analyze time series data from 1995 to 2021. The data was obtained from FAOSTAT, ReSAKSS, and World Bank online databanks. The predictor variables modeled were share of public agricultural expenditure (PAE), research and development spending, rural population, consumer price index, agricultural land, and government effectiveness. The results show that Lesotho did not register noticeable progress on the CAADP’s commitment to improve public agricultural expenditure in Lesotho from 1995 till 2014. However, there was some progress post-2015 with a percentage average above 5%. Cereal production consistently declined since 1999, while livestock trends have been steady since 2001. This study also found a significant reverse relationship between the share of PAE and cereal production, but an insignificant positive with livestock production in both short and long run. Further, an insignificant positive relationship is found between R&D and both cereal and livestock production in the long run, and a significant and negative one in the short run with cereals. The study further concluded that lack of policy longevity in R&D upset livestock production. On the other hand, a decline in cereal yields was connected to poor governance leading to the likelihood of mismanagement of allocated funds. The study recommends use of actual public agriculture expenditures to determine a concise impact on cereal and livestock production. To remedy a high dependence of PAE on the donor agencies for revenue, the government is encouraged to strive for financial sufficiency and maximize limited funds allocated to agriculture by engaging in suitable targeting. Good quality governance also will contribute a great deal to the effectiveness of CAADP initiatives in Lesotho.
A scenario-based enterprise optimisation of mixed farming units in the Hessequa district of the Western Cape Province, South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2024-07) Jordaan, Daniel du Plessis Scheepers; u04838930@tuks.co.za; Moore, Dian Erik
Over the past 20 years, the farming environment has changed significantly, becoming much more integrated and complicated. Whereas the focus was primarily on farming before, it has become a business, where farmers have to plan and optimise to be sustainable and survive every single scenario presented to them. To operate in a financially feasible manner, farming systems in the Western Cape of South Africa are heavily dependent on external inputs. What makes the farming environment so much more complicated is the fact that it is influenced by external factors from the social, political, economic and climatic environment, over which a farmer has very little control. This study investigated farm-level profitability under a range of scenarios as a mechanism to utilise as a basis for a strategic tool for advising farmers in a specific geographical area about challenging weather and approaching perilous times. This study used qualitative and quantitative methodologies to give farmers a strategic view of the future. Although the study’s main theme is scenario development, data were collected and analysed through using surveys and modelling. The concept of the typical farm was applied within the framework of scenario building to simulate the impact that a change to the input cost structure and weather (rainfall) would have on the structure of mixed farming operations in the mountainous area of Riversdale, Southern Cape. Using the enterprise data collected within linear modelling, possible changes to the typical farm setup were studied and analysed to provide farmers with an optimal and sustainable solution. From the results of the various scenarios, it is clear that mixed farming operations are important, as both livestock and cropping enterprises are needed to survive challenging financial periods. It can further be seen that the livestock component should be the flexible component of a mixed farming enterprise. By combining the linear model results from the four scenarios, an optimised average of a typical mixed farming operation is obtained. It is therefore suggested that, to survive three of the four scenarios, a typical farm should be split 70:30 in favour of cropping enterprises. Although the suggested mixed farming setup might not be optimal in years with favourable cropping conditions, the study aims to provide an optimal yet sustainable solution, and therefore a long-term optimised average profit would be obtained.
The appropriateness and sufficiency of public support to small-scale aquaculture producers in Gauteng Province, South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2024-07) Machethe, Charles Lepepeule; bethamm.citra33@gmail.com; Mofokeng, Masuping Berta
Aquaculture has become a significant global food-producing sector, where, with the traditional capturing fisheries being depleted, it offers a good opportunity to supplement supply in order to meet the increasing demand for aquatic food as populations grow. In the context of South Africa, the country has a wealth of marine and freshwater resources, and, because of this and diminishing captured fisheries, has a high growth potential. Consequently, aquaculture has been prioritised as an industry that could provide significant potential for increasing employment opportunities, rural and economic development, as well as food supply, while generating earnings and reducing poverty. Regardless of its potential and prioritisation on the part of government, the sector remains small and insignificant, contributing little to regional, national and global total fish production. The small-scale aquaculture farmers face various challenges that hamper their development and that of the sector. In efforts to address these challenges, the public sector has over the years implemented a number of policies and support programmes such as the National Aquaculture Strategic Framework (NASF), Operation Phakisa Aquaculture initiatives and the National Aquaculture Policy Framework (NAPF) amongst others. Despite this government support, small-scale farmers continue to face challenges, and the sector is growing at a slow rate. Various studies have been conducted that focus on identifying challenges and recommending possible solutions for aquaculture development in the country. However, extant studies do not assess whether the implemented government interventions or support programmes are appropriate and sufficient for addressing these challenges and developing small-scale aquaculture farmers. The overall objective of this study was to assess the appropriateness and sufficiency of public support for small-scale aquaculture producers in Gauteng Province, South Africa. The study focused on the appropriateness and sufficiency of two aquaculture support programmes, namely, the Aquaculture Development and Enhancement Programme (ADEP) and the Aquaculture Technology Demonstration Centre (ATDC). These programmes were identified for the purpose of this study, because they are aimed to address major challenges among small-scale aquaculture producers, namely, a lack of access to funding, and skills development. The study utilised both primary and secondary data. The research approach consisted of a combination of literature reviews, surveys, and stakeholder interviews. Responses from 18 aquaculture farmers and three government departments (the Department of Trade, Industry and Competition (DTIC), the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE) and Free State provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (FSDARD)) that implement the support programmes were captured in Microsoft Excel for data cleaning. Data was imported into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for automatic coding, and for further statistical analysis. Statistical analysis methods, such as frequency distribution and comparison analysis, were employed. The key finding of the study was that small-scale aquaculture producers continue to face challenges, such as lack of access to finance and skills development, regulatory barriers, and increasing costs of inputs and capital expenditure. The findings further revealed that public support available through ADEP that serves to assist small-scale aquaculture with access to finance was neither appropriate nor sufficient. The ADEP was not considered appropriate because the minimum requirements for grant funding are difficult to achieve by small-scale aquaculture producers. Financial support through ADEP is not sufficient due to its cost-sharing reimbursement structure creating a barrier for farmers lacking upfront capital. Furthermore, it does not offer start-up and working capital, which are the major needs for small-scale aquaculture development. Similarly, the support related to skills development provided through ATDC was fairly appropriate and sufficient, because it offers free fish farming courses and lacks stringent selection criteria, focusing on subsistence and small-scale farmers. However, findings from the 18 farmers interviewed and the two implementing departments, DFFE and FSDARD further revealed that ATDC was not appropriate and sufficient, because it only offers basic fish farming courses, and does not offer comprehensive courses required to start and operate a farm, such as management, financial and personal skills. In addition, due to its location, the ATDC struggles to reach geographically dispersed farmers and poses a challenge owing to limited budgets to cover the cost of transport to the centre, food, and accommodation, which makes the training prohibitively expensive for many small-scale farmers. The findings also showed that similar aquaculture support programmes in China were more comprehensive, in comparison with support programmes in South Africa. ADEP and ATDC did not have the crucial elements required to provide comprehensive support to address financial and skills challenges faced by small-scale producers in South Africa. In conclusion, the study results demonstrate that small-scale aquaculture is still underdeveloped and continues to face various challenges that limit its potential and development. The government interventions to address these challenges have had little impact on the development of small-scale aquaculture, and are therefore highly not appropriate and are highly insufficient. Both the programmes that were investigated in this study, the ADEP and the ATDC, are important for the sector, but have proven to be insufficient and inappropriate for providing financial support and skills development required for small-scale aquaculture development. The case of China demonstrates that the aquaculture sector development in China was largely attributable to government policies and support. However, in the case of Egypt, fewer records of such support were found, which may indicate that the development of aquaculture not only depends on governmental support, but also on other external factors that do contribute. The study shows that there are possibilities and potential for improving the existing support programmes to become more appropriate and sufficient for small-scale aquaculture needs, as well as for achieving government goals. The study provides the following recommendations: (i) aquaculture blended financial model, suggest the ADEP be reviewed and blended with seed funding (start-up capital), which can be offered as a pure grant together with a subsidised loan that offers a low-interest loan for own contribution, working capital and for improving the competitiveness of the farm; (ii) comprehensive aquaculture extension system, which suggest that each province should have an aquaculture demonstration centre based on the demand, where the centres should add business, personal and management-related courses, essential for effective management of a farm, especially financial management, record keeping and other personal skills. Government should also invest in increasing the number of quality aquaculture extension officers and their expertise or skills in aquaculture, and the existing centre, the ATDC, ought to increase its promotion and awareness activities, and proper guidelines as to what they offer should be developed; (iii) aquaculture small-scale development policy, a policy dedicated to small-scale should be developed to address, over and above access to finance and skills development, other issues such as cheap fish imports, regulatory barriers, technology use, alternative energy sources, and research and development; (iv) comprehensive aquaculture research and development will encourage institutions such as Department of Science and Technology (DST), Agricultural Research Council (ARC), universities and South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) to work more closely together with the government to ensure that small-scale aquaculture is protected against proven, failed production systems and species. Further research and development ought to be undertaken in improving and introducing technology, species and feed that are of high quality, suitable for South African conditions, and would improve productivity and income. Keywords: Aquaculture, small-scale farmers, funding support, skills development, public support.
Knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of smallholder farmers towards cassava production in Limpopo, Mpumalanga and Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2024-07-07) Makhura, Moraka N.; Chaminuka, Petronella; u21638650@tuks.co.za; Ngobeni, Light
Cassava is a global source of carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, and it thrives in dry and infertile soil. Its resilience makes it suitable to mitigate climate change and reduce food insecurity. The crop is primarily consumed as a food source. However, it also has potential for use in various industries, including biofuel production, animal feed, and starch production for use in foods and textiles. Unfortunately, South Africa is not growing and using cassava to its full potential. This study evaluates the current state of cassava production in South Africa and assess how the socio-economics factors affect small-scale farmers' knowledge attitude, and practices (KAP) in cassava farming. The study used data from 117 farmers from three provinces, namely: Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and Kwazulu-Natal. The KAP model was used to analyse farmers’ KAP, and multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the relationship between socioeconomic and demographic factors and farmers’ KAP. The findings showed that only a small percentage of farmers had adequate knowledge on cassava production. This was expected considering that cassava is not a conventional crop in South Africa. In addition, a substantial number of farmers had negative attitudes. Despite this, farmers expressed an interest in learning more about cassava farming and marketing of cassava. The study also found that most farmers were not adequately following the recommended practices for cassava production. The results show different socio-economic factors’ effects on knowledge, attitude, and practice. The study highlighted that gender, being widowed, and being educated positively influence farmers’ knowledge on cassava production. However, membership in organizations, age, and being divorced negatively affect their knowledge. In addition, membership in organizations, marital status, education, and farming experience positively influence farmers’ attitudes towards cassava production. However, gender negatively affects their attitude. Furthermore, age, gender, being widowed, primary education, and farming experience positively affect farmers’ practices in cassava production. However, being married or divorced and having secondary or tertiary education negatively affect farmers’ practice. To improve cassava farming, there is a need for educational programs specifically focused on cassava. These programs should cover various aspects of cassava cultivation, including its perishability and how to manage pests and diseases. It is important to pay special attention to older and female farmers and encourage older farmers to share their experiences with others.
Identifying the significance of a Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak on the South African beef industry
(University of Pretoria, 2023-11) Jordaan, Daniel du Plessis Scheepers; Davids, Patricia (Tracey); paigebowen123@gmail.com; Bowen, Paige Carmen
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease endemic to South Africa (SA). As accepted by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), South African had an FMD-free zone where vaccination was not practised, until an outbreak in January 2019, leading to the shutdown of SA’s beef exports. While bilateral agreements were made between certain of SA’s trading partners, the outbreak of FMD was generally regarded by industry role players as having a considerable impact on the beef industry of South Africa; however, the extent of this impact was not quantified. This study aims to quantify the impact that an FMD outbreak has on the average beef carcass price in SA. By making use of SA’s volume of beef exported as a proxy to indicate FMD (given that an FMD disease outbreak prevents the export of beef unless bilateral agreements are made between specific trading partners), ordinary least squares (OLS) regression indicated that exports do have a statistically significant impact on the average beef carcass price in SA. However, diagnostic testing on the results showed that the model contained defects and, therefore, was unsuitable for hypothesis testing. On this basis, while the study supported the need to quantify the impact of FMD outbreaks on the South African beef industry, it is recommended that further research is needed, especially noting the structural shift created by the outbreak, as the country’s FMD-free-zone status is yet to be reinstated at the time of writing this study.
Analysing South Africa's food security environment based on the 2022 Global Food Security Index score and rank
(University of Pretoria, 2024-02) Loki, Olwethu; Selomane, Odirilwe; margueritenel06@gmail.com; Marguerite, Nel
A report issued by the FAO has warned that, on a global scale, most nations are not progressing towards the achievement of the goal to eliminate hunger before the end of the year 2030, as outlined in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2019). Consistent with global patterns, the general state of food security in South Africa has experienced a decline over the preceding five years. The study aimed to analyse South Africa’s food security environment by utilising the Global Food Security Index (GFSI) score and rank, focusing on identifying areas for improvement and prioritising actions for stakeholders. Furthermore, it proposed to evaluate the trend in South Africa’s GFSI rank and score from 2012 to 2022, reviewed performance in the four GFSI dimensions (affordability, availability, quality & safety, sustainability & adaptability), based on the 2022 report, and to suggest actionable steps for various stakeholders to enhance food security. The research adopted a comprehensive approach, blending primary and secondary data sources. Secondary data analysis traced the trajectory of South Africa’s GFSI score and rank over the 2012–2022 period, while primary data collection involved semi-structured interviews with nine recognised experts in relevant fields respective to the indicators. Key findings indicated an initial increase in South Africa’s food security from 2012 to 2016, followed by a moderate decline leading up to 2022. Thirteen out of 68 indicators including, change in the average food cost, food security and access to policy commitments, and water, significantly contributed to the deterioration of the 2022 score and rank. Despite having strong policies and strategies in place to protect and enhance South Africa’s food security, implementation failures were identified in South Africa’s food security environment, these included, lack of collaboration, water system failures and a lack of know-how and support. The GFSI should be understood as an evaluation tool for assessing the food security environment. This study suggests actionable steps that should be implemented and monitored by a food security agency in South Africa. Recommendations included the establishment of a dedicated food security task force or coordinating body to supervise implementation, fostering sustained collaboration among stakeholders. Continuous monitoring of South Africa's GFSI score, and rank was advised to track progress and identify further areas for improvement.
Food policy analyses and prioritisation of food systems to achieve safer food for South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2024-03) Loki, Olwethu; Fitawek, Wegayehu; u10676148@tuks.co.za; Dama, Tshilidzi Isaac
Food safety has become an important international public health and economic issue since the first and only publication of the global estimates on burden of food borne diseases by the World Food Organisation in 2015 and by the World Bank in 2018. Food safety refers to all microbial and chemical hazards, whether chronic or acute, that may contaminate and make food injurious to the consumer. The consumption of unsafe food has had a detrimental effect on public health and economic development due to productivity loss, chronic diseases and death as a results of consumption of unsafe food. Systematic review and stakeholder interviews methods were used to identify challenges hindering the provision of safe food and potential no-regret solutions. The challenges that constrain provision of safe food in South Africa’s food systems and potential solutions were identified through systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Potential solutions were then ranked through stakeholder interviews. Best-Worst scaling and hierarchical clustering were used to rank and prioritise actions as no- regret actions to transform food systems. There were 12 actions prioritised as no-regret solutions from various thematic focus. The prioritised no-regret actions included research and technology actions such as the collaboration of researchers in different sectors of the food system to develop strategies to deal with the complexity of food systems and identify priorities for interventions, adopt technological innovations throughout the value chain to improve food safety, strengthen laboratory diagnostic services, and conducting more research studies on the use of easy to understand food safety labels to improve awareness. The no-regret options prioritised are feasible, and provide basis for policy interventions to improve food safety and achieve developmental goals. This study recommended harmonising the legislative framework to improve stakeholder collaboration and accelerate the much needed transformation of the food systems.
Prioritisation of no-regret solutions to address food system disruption in central Mozambique
(University of Pretoria, 2024-03) Loki, Olwethu; Fitawek, Wegayehu; Mpuzu, Sikwela; u19193417@tuks.co.za; Jorge, Crisaldo Joao
Extreme weather events (floods, droughts, and cyclones) have become more frequent and severe, posing a threat to food systems. These disruptions have devastating effects on agriculture, livelihoods, and food security, particularly for vulnerable smallholder farmers. This study addresses the pressing need to prioritize "no-regret" solutions which are actionable and feasible for food system problems in Central Mozambique. The research problem is framed within Southern Africa's vulnerability to climate-related shocks, with Mozambique experiencing catastrophic events, including protracted droughts, cyclones, and flooding, that have disrupted the food system and left millions of people in severe food insecurity. The systematic review functioned as a mechanism for gathering insights from diverse studies. This data was sifted using Atlas.ti and subsequently structured into a questionnaire. Through purposive sampling, stakeholders were selected and invited to rank the items within the questionnaire. Stakeholder perspectives, including farmers, government institutions, non- governmental organizations, and academia, was gathered through purposive sampling and questionnaires to assess the viability of these strategies. Key findings show that while food assistance, particularly cash transfer programs, plays a vital role, it often functions as an ex- post intervention following disasters. Insurance-based solutions emerge as a frequently cited mechanism, showing the need for well-designed financial protection instruments. The research identifies six interconnected themes (Supply chain infrastructure, Agriculture, Education and public awareness, financial, public institutions and Research, processing and technology) that, when integrated, offer a rounded strategy for addressing food system disruptions. Given Central Mozambique's vulnerability to climate-related shocks, climate-smart agriculture emerges as a top priority. Stakeholder diversity in preferences features the complexity of addressing food system challenges. Agriculture consistently ranks as a top priority, reflecting v its central role as the primary income source for a significant population. The study recommends a broad set of actions, including adopting climate-smart agriculture practices, proactive food assistance programs, and developing financial protection instruments. The study's outcomes conclusion presents a stakeholder-driven, rounded strategy to prioritize actions, emphasizing governance, agriculture, research and technology, education, finance, and supply chain dynamics to support policymakers, researchers, and practitioners working towards building a more resilient and sustainable food system in Central Mozambique, particularly in the context of increasing threats from extreme weather events.
Stakeholder interactions and capacity development for innovation and adoption of agricultural technologies: the case of banana value chain in Uganda
(University of Pretoria, 2024-02-23) Babu, Chandra Suresh; Akankwasa, Kenneth; u18269924@tuks.co.za; Kiconco, Stella
The low level of adopting improved technologies has been a major challenge towards increasing agricultural productivity and ensuring food security in developing countries. Although multiple studies have been conducted with regard to how the adoption of improved technologies could be enhanced, less attention has been focused on understanding the role of interactions among stakeholders in an agricultural system such as the value chain and their capacities to influence innovation and adoption of improved technologies. This study examined interactions and capacity development needs for innovation and adoption of technologies among stakeholders in the Ugandan banana value chain. The study employed a mixed methods design, involving the use of qualitative and quantitative methods as complements in collecting and analyzing primary data. Primary data were collected by conducting focus group discussions with banana farmers and traders; the key informant interviews (KIIs) with the banana traders (retailers, wholesalers, bicycle/motorbike banana traders), the processors for various banana products, export farmers, researchers and extension agents as key influential stakeholders in the banana value chain. A household survey was also conducted among banana farming households. The study took place in low-land, highland, and mid-highland agroecological zones in Uganda; specifically, in Nakaseke, Bunyangabu, and Isingiro districts respectively, representing the historical banana growing areas in Uganda. The data collected through FGDs and KIIs were analyzed qualitatively using the Social Network Analysis (SNA) methodology to establish the stakeholder interactions for innovation and technology adoption. Thematic analysis was also conducted to establish Capacity Development (CD) gaps for innovation and adoption of technologies. Data from the household survey was analyzed using the Multivariate probit and Ordered probit models in order to establish factors that influence multiple adoption decisions of improved technologies among banana farming households. According to the study findings, there are various stakeholders in the banana value chain with the potential to contribute to innovation and adoption of technologies. Social Network Analysis (SNA) results indicate the densities of 28.0%, 25.6%, and 26.8% from Bunyangabu, Isingiro, and Nakaseke value chains, respectively, implying the existence of weak linkages among stakeholders in such areas which indicates that most of them are working in isolation. This limits the possibility of innovating together. Particularly, research and extension had weak or missing connections with the key stakeholders such as the processors, traders, and farmer groups. This depicts the existing limited discussions, cooperation and feedback among them, with the likely outcome of generating and promoting technologies that are not acceptable among end users. Betweenness results indicate that in Bunyangabu, regulatory bodies were the most influential stakeholders for facilitating information exchange and service delivery as indicated by the relative betweenness of 1. The position of regulatory bodies in this area depicts the importance of an enabling environment in facilitating information exchange and service delivery for innovation and adoption of technologies. In Isingiro and Nakaseke, farmer groups were the most influential stakeholders. The results show that the potential of various stakeholders to engage in innovation activities could be unlocked by engaging in capacity development at individual, organizational and enabling environment dimensions. Capacity development needs at all the dimensions were similar and are; banana value addition, marketing and financial access options, and management in order to improve adoption. Results from the econometric analysis show that a number of banana technologies can be adopted as complements or substitutes. The results further show that household size, total area under banana production, ecological location, household membership to a farmer group, access to formal sources of credit, and, input and output markets in major towns of Uganda produced significant results with the MVP model and ordered probit model. This indicates that the type and the number of technologies that can be adopted at a time are determined by similar factors which should be taken into account when designing adoption interventions for multiple agricultural technologies. The study results provide evidence that there were missing linkages among essential stakeholders (such as research, extension, processors, financial service providers, and traders) which further limits their involvement in the innovation activities in banana value chain. The need for improved access to and management of finance and marketing services to facilitate innovation and adoption of technologies is reflected in the capacity development needs and was identified as a key limiting factor for the adoption of technologies among banana farming households. Therefore, the banana farming environment should be improved such that there are favorable marketing systems and availability of funding at low-interest rates affordable by the value chain stakeholders. By answering the three research questions, this study provides a guiding framework for identification of appropriate technological packages, intervention zones and training topics as capacity development requirements to be fulfilled in order to facilitate innovation and adoption of technologies in the Ugandan banana value chain.
Attitudes of school-going and unemployed youth towards agriculture as a profession in the Eastern Cape of South Africa
(University of Pretoria, 2023-11) Mostert, Christiaan; u19321369@tuks.co.za; Mnukwa, Mihlali
Agriculture is one of the largest contributors to the economic growth in South Africa and plays an important role in the socio-economic development of South Africa, particularly in rural regions like the Eastern Cape, however the decline in interest among youth to participate in agriculture threatens the future of agriculture in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to identify strategies that the government can use to encourage school-going and unemployed youth to consider the agricultural sector in the Eastern Cape of South Africa as a potential career. The specific objectives of the study were to identify the attitudes of school-going and unemployed youth in the Eastern Cape, addressing the barriers that youth face when entering agriculture and develop strategies that can be used to encourage youth entry to pursue agriculture as a profession. A sample of 100 respondents was selected using a simple random sampling technique to allow different groups of unemployed youth and school going respondents to participate in this study and it helped to gather different attitudes and interests in the agricultural profession. The study used quantitative method to understand the behaviour and attitudes of the respondents. Furthermore, the study identified issues that influence the attitudes of school-going and unemployed youth respondents, barriers to entry in agricultural practice for youth were also identified and possible recommendations to encourage public policy to encourage youth participation in agriculture were developed. Descriptive statistics methods such as percentages and frequencies were adopted and used to summarise the data in an understanding way, while describing the difference between the variables of these two groups. Likert scale data was analysed and presented in tables. Open-ended responses were read through to identify similar themes and insights, noted down and thematic codes were formed to categorise and perform data analysis for open-ended responses. Diverging stacked graphs were used to compare Likert scale results and check the difference between the two groups. Descriptive statistics results revealed that majority of respondents were females in both groups. The Likert scale results revealed that school-going and unemployed respondents have differences and similarities regarding the issues that influence their attitudes towards agriculture. The diverging charts revealed that issues such as agricultural businesses taking longer to generate profit with risks and limited awareness and educational programmes about agriculture have a negative influence on both school-going and unemployed youth. The study further revealed that parent’s involvement in choosing careers for their children has no negative influence on school-going and unemployed youth 5 attitudes. These charts further revealed that the attention required by agribusiness and its limitation to urban contact had no negative influence on school-going learners while unemployed youth attitudes were negatively influenced by it. The findings revealed that the issue of long, complicated land transfers is not a barrier that prevents youth participation in agriculture while unemployed youth believed that it prevents youth engagement in agriculture. In addition, the findings revealed that school-going and unemployed youth believed that rising inputs costs, exclusion of youth to financial assistance prevent youth entry into agricultural practices. The findings of this study contribute important information to policymakers, educators, and agricultural stakeholder in understanding the issues that influence youth participation in agriculture in Eastern Cape. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that public policy should include and promote more employment for educated youth in most departments of the sector, encouraging them to participate in agribusiness activities. Public policy should encourage more partnerships with the private sector for rural projects, rebranding agriculture into modern business and introduce digital technologies to attract youth to the sector. Public policy should avail state land for rentals to young people interested in utilising the land for short term period, targeting rural areas with skills development programs and establish more institutions for public funding that will fund agricultural research, conducting experiments that will assist in developing strategies to improve farming and protect produce from natural disasters. Ultimately, the study seeks to inform possible recommendations that will not only benefit the youth but contribute to the sustainable development of the agricultural sector in the Eastern Cape. Keywords- Attitudes, Barriers, School-going learners, Unemployed youth, Policy recommendations.
An assessment of the factors influencing asset accumulation of South African rural households
(University of Pretoria, 2024-02) Makhura, Moraka N.; ; u21738239@tuks.co.za; Dayimane, Mzwandile
Rural areas in South Africa are predominantly characterized by the presence of subsistence farming households, many of which face challenges related to limited asset ownership. While historical poverty reduction efforts have primarily focused on addressing income poverty, this approach overlooks the multifaceted nature of poverty experienced by rural communities. Scholars increasingly argue that poverty should not be solely defined by insufficient income or consumption but should also consider the absence of assets. This study adopts an asset-centric perspective to investigate the factors influencing asset accumulation among rural households in South Africa. Particularly, it examines how participation in subsistence farming impacts asset accumulation, given the crucial role that asset ownership plays in ensuring a basic standard of living, especially when facing unpredictable fluctuations in income. To conduct this research, data from South Africa's 2018 General Household Survey (GHS), conducted by Statistics South Africa, was utilized. The study focused on a subset of rural residents within the dataset. The results of the Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) reveal that the first component accounts for 57.2% of the overall variance, while the second component explains 12.3%. The asset index derived from the eigenvalues of the first component reveals a pattern wherein positive coefficients corresponded with assets associated with higher socio-economic status, such as ownership of computers, vehicles, and telephones. Conversely, negative coefficients were indicative of items reflecting lower living standards. The research findings highlight the significance of various factors in influencing household asset accumulation. Household engagement in subsistence farming, household size, income levels, the primary source of income, gender dynamics, and the age of the household head emerged as influential determinants. Both ordinary least squares (OLS) and Ordered Multinomial Logit regression models strongly supported these findings, with the latter based on asset wealth quintiles. The research revealed that asset poverty is more prevalent in female-headed households compared to male-headed ones. In addition, households involved in subsistence farming exhibited higher levels of asset ownership, suggesting that this livelihood strategy has a positive impact on their overall well-being. The study also highlights the crucial role of access to basic services such as transportation, information, and communication in enhancing households' resilience to economic shocks. Assets were identified as essential tools for coping with unforeseen challenges. Consequently, the study recommends the implementation of policies and strategies aimed at improving rural access to basic services, infrastructure, and land markets. Such measures have the potential to mitigate asset poverty and align with the government's rural development objectives.
Stakeholder preferences for ecosystem services provided by wetlands in Eswatini
(University of Pretoria, 2024) Jourdain, Damien; Mungatana, Eric D.; Lundhede, Thomas Hedemark; u11335531@tuks.co.za; Mahlalela, Linda Siphiwo
Wetlands sustainability and their capacity to provide ecosystem services is threatened by increasing land pressure and climate change effects. Wetlands are also complex ecosystems that present several challenges to public agencies charged with their sustainable use and management. This thesis explores three aspects of wetlands management that are relatively less explored in the environmental economics literature. First, there is little empirical evidence on the associations between wetland interventions, ecosystem services, and threats to wetlands. The first essay systematically reviewed literature to assess the potential associations between wetland interventions, ecosystem services, and threats to wetlands. Second, research on the economic valuation of environmental goods and services has paid less attention to their cultural services relative to provisioning, regulating, and supporting services, yet the former are important for cultural continuity. The second essay addresses this gap and is an attempt to measure the economic value of cultural services. Third, a major constraint to sustainable wetlands management is that users and public decision-makers often have different perceptions about how they function and often disagree on the relative importance of their different ecosystem services. The different perceptions and disagreements have led to wetland management issues being identified as “wicked problems”, i.e., intractable problems embedded in complex systems, difficult to define, and without clear solutions. “Wicked problems” are evident in the lack of consensus among stakeholders on the definition and solutions to wetland management challenges. Complex wetland management challenges are often created by the variety of stakeholders with conflicting interests. Conflicts often arise from the different perceptions on the relative importance of ecosystem services and disagreements. The wetland management challenges are evident in disputes between public authorities and households as well as between public authorities themselves. Following the wicked problems literature, stakeholder involvement is imperative in designing long-term solutions to wetland management challenges and a better understanding of the different stakeholder perspectives should contribute to reducing ecosystem management’s wickedness. The main objective of the third essay was to identify the different worldviews about the ecosystem services provided by a wetland. The first essay reports on the systematic review of studies in southern Africa and the potential associations between wetland interventions, ecosystem services, and threats to wetlands. Three main wetland interventions were identified i.e., wetland management, wetland rehabilitation, and wetland restoration. Interventions such as wetland policies, wetland preservation, and wetland conservation were reported in combination with the three main interventions. Cultural services were one of the least reported ecosystem services (n = 3, 8%). The results show that wetland degradation is mostly caused by population growth, which leads to an increase in agriculture and the construction of infrastructure to accommodate the rising demands of people for shelter, food, and water. Wetland management interventions were associated with threats such as invasive alien plants, grazing, canalisation, unregulated wetland use, and urban developments. Likewise, wetland rehabilitation interventions were associated with grazing and canalisation while wetland restoration was only associated with invasive alien plants. Moreover, wetland management and wetland rehabilitation interventions were associated with wetland agriculture and fibre (reeds and sedge) production. The second essay reports on a discrete choice experiment that was designed to elicit preferences for cultural services using the special case of reed dance and wetlands in Eswatini. The reed dance is traditional ceremony where young maidens honour the Queen Mother by cutting reeds from wetlands which are then presented to her and eventually used for repairing the windbreaks around the royal residence, in Eswatini. Three split samples were used with respective payment vehicle types, i.e., household tax, contribution, and reduced subsidy. The results suggested that respondents had positive attitudes and perceptions towards wetland management. Surprisingly however, the price attribute had a positive sign indicating that respondents experienced positive utility from paying higher taxes. Several explanations could lead to this theoretically inconsistent result. First, cultural services may not be as important for stakeholders as conceptualised in the research. Second, stakeholders may have experienced difficulties trading-off cultural services with price (incommensurability), as confirmed by attribute non-attendance on the price attribute. Finally, while best-practice non-market valuation surveys are designed to be incentive compatible, asking respondents about a cultural experience with delicate links to a political system might have prevented them from truthfully revealing their preferences. Results on knowledge about the reed dance and wetland management suggested that the respondents were familiar with the reed dance. The third essay used a semi-qualitative approach, the Q methodology to investigate how stakeholders rank ecosystem services provided by Hawane Dam and Nature Reserve. The Q methodology did not require respondents to make trade-offs between services and price but allowed them to rank the importance of different ecosystem services in a transparent and systematic way. We chose the Q methodology among other potential qualitative approaches. Results suggested three contrasting views which were labelled: “water users”, “conservationists”, and “the traditional users”. Stakeholders uniformly recognised two regulatory functions as important: water purification and water flows regulation. The results imply that the consensus views can initiate discussions among stakeholders on ecosystem services to be prioritised and given visibility when designing strategies in incentivising behavioural change. The distinct views could help initiate and facilitate further fruitful discussions, commitment, and future collaborations across stakeholders. Overall, stakeholders ranked cultural services lower relative to other ecosystem services categories suggesting that the Q methodology should have logically come before essay 2 which attempted to elicit preferences for cultural services. Both essays 1 and 3 focused on all ecosystem services while essay 2 was dedicated to cultural services. However, essay 1 broadly assessed ecosystem services in southern Africa while essay 3 focused on ecosystem services in Eswatini and essay 2 focused on preferences for cultural services in Eswatini. In both essay 1 and 3, cultural services were the least reported and ranked relatively lower than other ecosystem services, respectively. The study contributes to reducing the “wickedness” of wetland management challenges and generally to conservation management i.e., it identifies three main viewpoints and consensus views which help initiate discussions. However, the power dynamics should be uncovered and managed for mutually beneficial discussions to take place, especially for local communities with no power to influence decision outcomes. Overall, our results underline the importance of understanding how individuals look at and understand the services being valued and suggest the use of Q methodology as a possible means to prepare a choice experiment. Stakeholder engagements and local community participation are key in both incentives and regulatory legislation discussions to encourage sustainable management of wetlands without adversely affecting local livelihoods.
Evaluation of land tenure on household food security and child nutrition among smallholder farmers in Nigeria
(University of Pretoria, 2024-02-03) Hendriks, Sheryl L.; Schönfeldt, Hettie; u18281614@tuks.co.za; Ibrahim, Hussain Kobe
Secure land tenure is essential to improve smallholder food security and children's nutrition. However, evidence of this association is lacking. This study sought to address this gap by investigating three sub-objectives: the causal effect of smallholder land tenure on household food security; the effect of smallholder land tenure on child malnutrition; and the relationship between smallholder household food insecurity and child nutrition in Nigeria between 2012 and 2019. Panel data from Nigeria's living standards measurement study's integrated surveys on agriculture from 2012/13, 2015/16 and 2018/19 were analysed using flexible conditional difference-in-difference and logistic regression models. The land tenure types investigated included land acquisition via family inheritance, community distribution, outright purchases, rent and free land use and formal land certificates and informal land documents. The Consolidated Approach for Reporting Indicators of Food Insecurity (CARI); food expenditure shares; the household dietary diversity score (HDDSs); the food consumption score (FCSs); asset ownership and the Livelihood Coping Strategy (LCS) were used as proxies for household food security. Children's malnutrition indicators included stunting, wasting, underweight, overweight and stunted-overweight. Household socioeconomic and demographic characteristics were used as controls in the analysis. Land ownership via family inheritance and holding informal land documents might support smallholder food security by increasing their dietary diversity and lowering their food expenditure shares. Households on family-inherited land were 57% more likely to consume diverse diets (HDDS) but were 20% less likely to have high FCSs. On the other hand, smallholder farmers holding informal documents were more likely to have lower FCS (-12%), higher HDDS (+84%) and higher LCS (+2%). Smallholder land tenure had a small but relevant effect on reducing child malnutrition with community-level land distribution and informal land documents in Nigeria. Households on community-distributed land (allocated by community leaders) were eight and five percent less likely to have stunted and underweight children. In addition, while the formal land certificate holders had a 13% chance of having stunted children, informal land document holders were seven and five percent less likely to have wasted and underweight children. Food-insecure households (with poor or borderline FCSs) were more likely to have stunted and wasted children. Households with fewer than three assets were less likely to have overweight children. Children from households with high food expenditure shares were more likely to be stunted, wasted and underweight. Children in food-insecure households (with low HDDSs and LCSs) were more likely to be stunted. The Nigerian government should formalise existing informal land documents and recognise the role of customary land acquisition with certificates among smallholder farmers to support food security and nutrition policies.
A stakeholder assessment of the food fraud vulnerability of the South African meat sector : a case study of the Tshwane metropolitan area
(University of Pretoria, 2023) Jordaan, Daniel du Plessis Scheepers; Vhutshilo9@gmail.com; Nelwamondo, Vhutshilo
Occurrences of food fraud have highlighted the importance of understanding the vulnerability of food chains to fraud and so be able to improve companies’ ability to reduce fraud within their own institutions and throughout their supply chain. “The food industry is generally vulnerable to crime and the meat industry is mentioned as one of the most vulnerable. The South African meat industry is experiencing its own crisis, as scientists have, for instance, found beef products that contain buffalo, donkey, pig, or goat meat, which is not on the labels on local products, as well as chicken products that contain pork. While a growing number of academics and scientists have begun to research the food fraud issue in Africa, experts say the lack of policing and enforcement is contributing to massive food fraud in South Africa, which thrives because of weaknesses in systems that stem from poor reinforcing and policing. To contribute towards some practical and scientific knowledge to combat the problem of food fraud, the purpose of this study is to assess the food fraud vulnerability factors in South Africa in the Tshwane metropolitan area. The research purpose outlined was explored to address and inform discussions on the study objectives, regarding a) determining the extent of food fraud vulnerability in South Africa (Tshwane metropolitan area); b) determining the key opportunities for food fraud vulnerability in Tshwane metropolitan area; c) determining the key motivations for food fraud vulnerability in Tshwane metropolitan area ; and d) determining the key control measures for food fraud vulnerability in Tshwane metropolitan area. The objectives set out for this research were measured quantitatively by utilising a single cross-sectional approach, guided by the positivist paradigm. In keeping with the dictates of ensuring the highest levels of reliability and validity, measurement items developed from the SSAFE food fraud vulnerability assessment tool were adopted. This was to help assess issues relating to food fraud in the meat and meat products sector, which flows from 6 production to the end user as the consumer, although this tool is relatively related to the supplier. The tool comprises indicators categorised as opportunities, motivations, and control measures to gain an insight into the food fraud vulnerabilities factors related to meat and meat products within the South African context. The study area covered Pretoria, which is in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Pretoria, also known as the City of Tshwane, is located around 50 km north of Johannesburg in the northeast of South Africa. Since it was difficult in this study to obtain an accurate database on the meat consumers and food specialists around Pretoria, the acquisition of the actual population size was rendered problematic. Resultantly, it was difficult to group together a sample that is representative of the larger population. For this reason, and since data was collected during the period controlled by COVID-19 movement restrictions, the sample was based on the availability of respondents. In total, 100 participants were surveyed (80 for meat consumers and 20 for food specialists). Given the time and financial restrictions, the sample for meat customers was simply chosen from butcheries within a 20-kilometer radius of Pretoria’s Central Business District. Food experts, on the other hand, were specifically chosen for their knowledge of food fraud vulnerability issues. Various factors that exacerbate food fraud vulnerability opportunities in South Africa were identified, which include wide availability of technology and knowledge for adulterating raw materials and final products; low fraud detectability in raw materials and raw materials; inadequate access by external parties to production lines/processing activities in food production; lack of transparency in the food chain network of meat and meat products; and inadequate historical evidence of fraud in raw materials for meat and meat products. On the other hand, the findings showed that the majority of respondents were of the opinion that the opportunities for food fraud vulnerability related to meat and meat products were characterised by: inadequate economic health maintenance (healthcare) initiatives to determine food fraud in meat and meat products; lack of investment in valuable components to detect food fraud in meat and meat products; inadequate supply and pricing raw materials features (freshness, cuts, origin & composition) of meat and meat products; and inadequate enforcement of criminal offenses on internal individuals involved in food fraud events related to meat and meat products. Lastly, the results raised significant concern about the functioning of the meat supply chain in the country, as it established that insufficient control measures were available to guard against food fraud vulnerability within the supply chain. Specifically, the findings revealed inadequate fraud monitoring systems of and on raw materials of meat and meat products to fight food fraud, inadequate tracking and tracing food systems within companies to control 7 food fraud for meat and meat products, and insufficient integrity screening on own employees to control food fraud for meat and meat products.”

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