Kanda, ArtwellNcube, Esper JacobethVoyi, K.V.V. (Kuku)2022-09-212022-09-212021-12-04Kanda, A.; Ncube, E.J.; Voyi, K. Adapting Sanitation Needs to a Latrine Design (and Its Upgradable Models): A Mixed Method Study under Lower Middle-Income Rural Settings. Sustainability 2021, 13, 13444. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313444.2071-1050 (online)10.3390/su132313444https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/87248Supplementary File 1. Multistage sampling of households for Mbire district survey, northern Zimbabwe, 2021.Supplementary File 2. Summary of selected households for Mbire district survey, Zimbabwe, 2021.Supplementary File 3. Questionnaire for Mbire district, Zimbabwe Questionnaire ID.Supplementary File 4. Focus group guide.Supplementary File 5. The integrated behavioural model for water, sanitation, and hygiene (IBM-WASH).Supplementary File 6. Informed consent form.Supplementary File 7. Characteristics of participants in focus group discussions, Mbire district, northern Zimbabwe, 2021 (n = 39).Rural households have latrine preferences and unique sanitation needs. An assessment of how rural households adapt their sanitation needs to a nationally encouraged latrine design was done. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 790 households in a rural district of Zimbabwe from November 2020 to May 2021. Data were analysed using logistic regression. Qualitative data were collected using focus groups and analysed using thematic analysis. Analyses were done in STATA 16 and considered significant at p < 0.05. There was low adoption of the Blair ventilated improved pit latrine and its upgradable models. Significant predictor variables of BVIP latrine adoption were mainly contextual and psychosocial at the individual and household levels. They included source and level of household income, residence period, nature of homestead, number of cattle owned, knowledge of sanitation options and perceived high latrine cost. The latrine design was considered not a pro-poor option as it was unaffordable by many rural households resulting in its non-completion, poor-quality designs, alternative options, sharing and open defaecation. Poverty appears the main barrier for latrine ownership. However, a window of opportunity to improve access to sanitation in rural Zimbabwe exists by considering alternative sanitation options and financial investment mechanisms.en© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.AccessAlternative technologyBVIP designLatrine ownershipRural sanitationSustainable developmentBlair ventilated improved pit (BVIP)SDG-06: Clean water and sanitationSustainable development goals (SDGs)Article