Mazenda, Adrino, AdrinoNkwana, Hunadi Mapula2025-07-312025-07-312025Mazenda, A., Nkwana, H.M. Water, sanitation, and energy as determinants of food security among rural women-led households. International Journal of Energy and Water Resources (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42108-025-00368-6.2522-0101 (online)10.1007/s42108-025-00368-6http://hdl.handle.net/2263/103705DATA AVAILABILITY : The data utilised in the study was obtained from Statistics South Africa’s General Household Survey, 2021/22. The data is open to the public and accessible via the following link: https://doi.org/10.25828/7h7t-df42.In South Africa, especially in rural areas, access to essential resources such as water, sanitation, and energy is limited. This issue disproportionately impacts female-headed households, which also face challenges related to poverty and gender inequality. This study examines how water and sanitation influence food security in these households, focusing on the role of energy access as a mediating factor in the rural provinces of Limpopo and the Eastern Cape. Data was collected from 2369 female-headed households through the 2022 South African General Household Survey, and the analysis was conducted using structural equation modelling. The study findings showed a positive effect of improved water sources and enhanced food security (estimate = 0.06, p < 0.05). Conversely, water interruptions reduce food security (estimate = − 0.09, p < 0.001), with a significant indirect effect (estimate = − 0.03, p < 0.001). Municipal water sources negatively affect food security (estimate = − 0.07, p = 0.004). Consequently, improved sanitation positively influenced food security (estimate = − 0.10, p < 0.001). The location of sanitation facilities positively affects food security (estimate = 0.20, p = 0.001). Finally, access to energy contributes to improved food security (estimate = 0.07, p = 0.007). The study highlights the need for targeted policies to address these households' unique challenges and strengthen their resilience against food insecurity.en© The Author(s) 2025.Open Access. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.Water-sanitation-energy nexusFood securityStructural equation modellingRural provincesSouth Africa (SA)Article