Fay, Philip A.Gherardi, Laureano A.Yahdjian, LauraAdler, Peter B.Bakker, Jonathan D.Bharath, SiddharthBorer, Elizabeth T.Harpole, W. StanleyHersch-Green, ErikaHuxman, Travis E.Macdougall, Andrew S.Risch, Anita C.Seabloom, Eric W.Bagchi, SumantaBarrio, Isabel C.Biederman, LoriBuckley, Yvonne M.Bugalho, Miguel N.Caldeira, Maria C.Catford, Jane A.Chen, QingqingCleland, Elsa E.Collins, Scott L.Daleo, PedroDickman, Christopher R.Donohue, IanDupre, Mary E.Eisenhauer, NicoEskelinen, AnuHagenah, NicoleHautier, YannHeckman, Robert W.Jonsdottir, Ingibjoerg S.Knops, Johannes M.H.Laungani, RameshMartina, Jason P.Mcculley, Rebecca L.Morgan, John W.Venterink, Harry OldePeri, Pablo L.Power, Sally A.Raynaud, XavierRen, ZhengweiRoscher, ChristianeSmith, Melinda D.Spohn, MarieStevens, Carly J.Tedder, Michelle J.Virtanen, RistoWardle, Glenda M.Wheeler, George R.2025-10-282025-10-282025-04-11Fay, P.A., Gherardi, L.A., Yahdjian, L. et al. 2025, 'Interactions among nutrients govern the global grassland biomass-precipitation relationship', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 122, no. 15, art : e2410748122, doi : 10.1073/pnas.24107481220027-8424 (print)1091-6490 (online)10.1073/pnas.2410748122http://hdl.handle.net/2263/105015Ecosystems are experiencing changing global patterns of mean annual precipitation (MAP) and enrichment with multiple nutrients that potentially colimit plant biomass production. In grasslands, mean aboveground plant biomass is closely related to MAP, but how this relationship changes after enrichment with multiple nutrients remains unclear. We hypothesized the global biomass–MAP relationship becomes steeper with an increasing number of added nutrients, with increases in steepness corresponding to the form of interaction among added nutrients and with increased mediation by changes in plant community diversity. We measured aboveground plant biomass production and species diversity in 71 grasslands on six continents representing the global span of grassland MAP, diversity, management, and soils. We fertilized all sites with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium with micronutrients in all combinations to identify which nutrients limited biomass at each site. As hypothesized, fertilizing with one, two, or three nutrients progressively steepened the global biomass–MAP relationship. The magnitude of the increase in steepness corresponded to whether sites were not limited by nitrogen or phosphorus, were limited by either one, or were colimited by both in additive, or synergistic forms. Unexpectedly, we found only weak evidence for mediation of biomass–MAP relationships by plant community diversity because relationships of species richness, evenness, and beta diversity to MAP and to biomass were weak or opposing. Site-level properties including baseline biomass production, soils, and management explained little variation in biomass–MAP relationships. These findings reveal multiple nutrient colimitation as a defining feature of the global grassland biomass–MAP relationship. SIGNIFICANCE Understanding how multiple interacting nutrients regulate the global relationship between mean annual precipitation and aboveground biomass is crucial for forecasting how ecosystem functioning will be altered by ongoing global changes. We fertilized with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium plus micronutrients in all combinations in 71 grasslands representing a global precipitation gradient. The grassland biomass–precipitation relationship became steeper with an increasing number of added nutrients. Increases in steepness corresponded to the form of interaction among added nitrogen and phosphorus. We found weak evidence that variation in plant species diversity mediated changes in the biomass–precipitation relationship. Multiple nutrient colimitation, particularly by nitrogen and phosphorus, is a defining feature of grassland biomass–precipitation relationships, and crucial to predicting grassland responses to global change.en© 2025 the Author(s). Published by PNAS. This article is distributed under creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (CC BY).EcosystemsPrimary productivityGrasslandsDiversityPrecipitationMean annual precipitation (MAP)Article