Aronson, JamesBlignaut, James NelsonAronson, Thibaud B.2017-09-212017-09-212017Aronson, J., Blignaut, J.N. & Aronson, T.B. 2017, 'Conceptual frameworks and references for landscape-scale restoration : reflecting back and looking forward', Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, vol. 102, no. 2, pp. 188-200.0026-6493 (print)2162-4372 (online)10.3417/2017003http://hdl.handle.net/2263/62498We review some of the most commonly known models in restoration ecology from the past 20 years. From these, we seek to identify essential elements required for the scaling-up and mainstreaming of restoration and, based on that, develop a new framework that could be used to assist in the realization of long-lasting and effective restoration policies and programs at the landscape and larger spatial scales. We argue that the reference model is particularly important at a time when there are urgent calls and investments for scaling-up restoration to the landscape scale. At that scale, we argue, it is essential to consider both ecological restoration and ecological rehabilitation as just two of the various components in a ‘‘family’’ of restorative activities that must be deployed, including changed management practices for agriculture, to make ongoing human activities and land uses more ecologically sound and sustainable. In conclusion, we present a new model that could help orient if not actually design planning, monitoring and evaluation, scaling-up, and applying restorative activities in new areas.enMissouri Botanical Garden PressHistorical continuityHolistic ecological restorationLandscape approachReference systemRestorative activitiesRestoring natural capitalScaling-upModelsDegradationForest restorationArticle