Crane, Thera MarieSavić, StefanSlater, OnelisaBernander, Rasmus2026-02-242026-02-242025-12Crane, T.M., Savic, S., Slater, O. et al. 2025, 'Modal expressions in Xhosa, Part II: Possibility', Africana Linguistica, vol. 31, pp. 31-67. DOI:10.2143/AL.31.0.3295058.2033-8732 (print)2034-8436 (online)10.2143/AL.31.0.3295058http://hdl.handle.net/2263/108598This study reports on modal expressions of possibility in Xhosa, a Bantu language of South Africa. Combining analysis of occurrences in a small corpus and the native-speaker intuitions of one of the authors, we describe patterns and restrictions in the distribution of four markers of possibility: auxiliary(-like) kwazi and nakho, and prefixes noku-and nga-. Results confirm the generalisation that further grammaticalisation (e.g. auxiliary > affix) corresponds to more subjective meanings. Our corpus data further suggest the significance of the category of existential possibility in Xhosa and its position in pathways of semantic change. Source lexical and constructional meanings are also significant in the usage patterns of Xhosa modal expressions. Finally, our results suggest that semantic expansion from participant-internal possibility (i.e. ability) functions to participant-external (circumstantial or goal-based) may occur via purpose and result clauses.Please read abstract in article.en© Peeters Online Journals. Article is published open access.Corpus linguisticsModalityNguni BantuPossibilityGrammaticalisation and subjectificationArticle