The graviportal spine : epaxial muscles of the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana)

Abstract

In this study, we present not only a new and detailed anatomical description of the epaxial muscles and adjacent ligamentous and fascial structures in the African sa-vanna elephant but also a structural and functional comparison with other Afrotherian mammals and some domestic quadrupeds. All structures were examined by means of standard anatomical techniques. The back of the largest land mammal is a crucial part of trunk construction according to the bow and string concept, which is applied also in other quadrupedal animals. The epaxial muscles of the African savanna elephant play an important role in the biomechanical properties of the entire back and in support-ing and moving the heavy head. Situated in the short cervical region of the African savanna elephant is a large mass comprised of numerous muscle individuals together with a well-developed ligamentum nuchae. Parts of the mm. interansversarii ventralis cervicis form a strong muscle belly, which was named the m. intertransversarius lon-gus. Whereas the head is held in a high or extended position most of the time during locomotion, the head and neck are highly mobile while the animal is foraging or so-cially interacting. Movements between the elements of the thoracic and lumbar spine are likely to be very limited due to the obvious rigidity of the bony vertebral column. Aponeuroses surrounding long epaxial muscles could contribute to an energy-saving mechanism, which is active during both stance and locomotion. The well-developed m. serratus dorsalis cranialis helps in facilitating effective breathing in an animal, which is equipped with an unusual pleural structure.