N–nitrosamines in surface and drinking waters : an African status report

Abstract

N-Nitrosamines are considered highly carcinogenic and genotoxic compounds, which are formed in water largely due to chloramination or chlorination disinfection in the presence of ammonia. N-nitrosodimethylamine has particularly attracted interest due to its high carcinogenicity. This review seeks to provide a synopsis of the present state of knowledge on the occurrence, toxicity, and analysis of N-nitrosamines in African surface and drinking water and highlights limitations and future directions. Solid phase extraction is preferred for nitrosamines in water, whilst analysis is mainly based on GC-MS or LC-MS. Extensive research into the distribution and potential impacts of N-nitrosamines in water has not yet been achieved on the African continent. There is a need for comprehensive research towards the development of sensitive but facile analytical methods for N-nitrosamines, and the monitoring thereof in African water matrices, particularly in drinking water, in order to better assess potential human health implications.