Environmental history and Memory : an evaluation of drought and dry periods in south-central and south -eastern Zimbabwe, 1940- present , and the archaeological implications

Abstract

English: The thesis re-examined current interpretations of the environmental role in the social formation and decline of complex societies in southern Africa in the last 2000 years. The study specifically focused on the period from the end of the first millennium AD to the second millennium AD in southern Africa. An understanding of complex societies, in terms of livelihood options, sustainability and human responses/decisions, was placed within the initial phase of the Little Ice Age during the transformation of societies such as Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe states occurred. The evaluation of the drought and dry periods for contemporary societies was assumed to give indicators of what could have happened between the rise and decline of southern Africa‟s complex societies. The findings from south-eastern and central Zimbabwean communities suggest new perspectives through livelihood lenses that incorporate human response and decisions in the face of natural catastrophes to interpret cultural change in an ever-changing environment. The findings of this study show that even during severe droughts or other stress-induced environmental events, people employed multiple strategies to reduce the risk and impact of climatic change. The interesting aspect of climate change and social organization rests not only on the challenges it poses, but also the opportunities created. Responding to droughts through diversified coping strategies for both past and contemporary societies is taken as evidence that people are not adamant victims of climate change. Key Words: complex societies, Little Ice Age, drought and dry spells, livelihood, transformation

Sepedi: Thesese e ile ya hlahloba gape ditlhathollo tša bjale tša tema ya tikologo go bopeng le go fokotšega ga ditšhaba tše di raraganego ka borwa bja Afrika mo mengwageng ye 2000 ya go feta. Thuto e be e lebeletše kudu paka ya go tloga mafelelong a ngwagakete wa mathomo wa AD go fihla ngwagaketeng wa bobedi wa AD ka borwa bja Afrika. Kwešišo ya ditšhaba tše di rhlakahlakanego, go ya ka dikgetho tša boiphedišo, tšwelopele le dikarabelo/diphetho tša batho, e beilwe ka gare ga kgato ya mathomo ya Mengwaga ya Little Ice nakong ya phetogo ya ditšhaba tša go swana le dinaga tša Mapungubwe le Great Zimbabwe di diregile. Tekolo ya komelelo le dipaka tša komelelo ya ditšhaba tša sebjalebjale e be e tšewa gore ke ditšhupetšo tša seo se ka bego se diregile magareng ga go hlatloga le go fokotšega ga ditšhaba tše di raraganego tša borwa bja Afrika. Dikutollo go tšwa ditšhabeng tša borwa-bohlabela le bogareng bja Zimbabwe di šišinya dipono tše mpsha ka dilentshe tša boiphedišo tšeo di akaretšago karabelo ya batho le diphetho ge ba lebane le masetlapelo a tlhago go hlatholla phetogo ya setšo tikologong yeo e fetogago ka mehla. Dikutollo tša nyakišišo ye di bontšha gore le nakong ya komelelo ye šoro goba ditiragalo tše dingwe tša tikologo tšeo di hlolwago ke kgatellego, batho ba šomišitše maano a mantši go fokotša kotsi le khuetšo ya phetogo ya klaemete. Karolo ye e gogago šedi ya phetogo ya klaemete le thulaganyo ya leago ga e hwetšagale fela ditlhohlong tšeo e di tlišago, eupša gape le menyetla yeo e hlolegilego. Go arabela komelelo ka maano a go fapafapana a go lebela bobedi maemo a ditšhaba tša nakong ye e fetilego le tša sebjalebjale go tšewa bjalo ka bohlatse bja gore batho ga se bahlaselwa ba tiilego ba phetogo ya klaemete. Mantšu a Bohlokwa: ditšhaba tše hlakahlakanego, Mengwaga ya Little Ice, komelelo le dinako tša komelelo, boiphedišo, phetogo

Afrikaans: Die proefskrif het die huidige interpretasies van die omgewing se rol in die sosiale vorming en agteruitgang van komplekse samelewings in suidelike Afrika in die afgelope 2000 jaar herondersoek. Die studie het spesifiek gefokus op die tydperk vanaf die einde van die eerste millennium n.C. tot die tweede millennium n.C. in suidelike Afrika. n Begrip van komplekse samelewings, in terme van lewensbestaansmoontlikhede, volhoubaarheid en menslike reaksies en besluite, is binne die aanvanklike fase van die Klein Ystydperk geplaas tydens die transformasie van samelewings soos Mapungubwe en Groot-Zimbabwe-state. Daar is aanvaar dat die evaluering van die droogte en droë periodes vir kontemporêre samelewings aanduiding gee van wat kon gebeur het tussen die opkoms en agteruitgang van suidelike Afrika se komplekse samelewings. Die bevindinge van Suidoos- en Sentraal-Zimbabwiese gemeenskappe dui op nuwe perspektiewe deur lewensbestaanlense wat menslike reaksies en besluite in die aangesig van natuurrampe insluit om kulturele verandering in 'n steeds veranderende omgewing te interpreteer. Die bevindinge van hierdie studie toon dat selfs tydens ernstige droogtes of ander stresgeïnduseerde omgewingsgebeurtenisse, mense verskeie strategieë gebruik het om die risiko en impak van klimaatsverandering te verminder. Die interessante aspek van klimaatsverandering en sosiale organisasie berus nie net op die uitdagings wat dit bied nie, maar ook op die geleenthede wat geskep word. Om op droogtes te reageer deur gediversifiseerde hanteringstrategieë vir beide vorige en hedendaagse samelewings word as bewys geneem dat mense nie onwrikbare slagoffers van klimaatsverandering is nie.

IsiZulu: Lolu cwaningo luphinde lwahlola kabusha ukuchazwa kwamanje kwendima yezemvelo ekwakhiweni komphakathi kanye nokwehla kwemiphakathi eyinkinga ese-Afrika eseningizimu eminyakeni eyi-2000 edlule. Ucwaningo lugxile ikakhulukazi esikhathini esisuka ekupheleni kwezinkulungwane zokuqala zeminyaka ye-AD ukuya kwinkulungwane yesibili yeminyaka ye-AD ye-Afrika eseningizimu. Ukuqonda imiphakathi eyinkinga, mayelana nokukhetha kokuziphilisa, ukusimama kanye nezimpendulo/izinqumo zobuntu, kwafakwa esigabeni sokuqala sesikhathi se-Little Ice Age ngesikhathi sokuguqulwa kwemiphakathi efana nezifunda zase-Mapungubwe kanye ne-Great Zimbabwe zenzeka. Ukuhlolwa kwesomiso kanye nezikhathi zesomiso emiphakathini yangaleso sikhathi kwacatshangelwa ukuthi kunikeza izinkomba zalokho okwakungenzeka ngaphakathi kokukhula nokuncipha kwemiphakathi eyinkinga yase-Afrika eseningizimu. Okutholwe emiphakathini yasempumalanga eseningizimu kanye nasenkabeni ye-Zimbabwe kuphakamisa imibono emisha ngokusebenzisa amalensi okuziphilisa ahlanganisa ukusabela kwesintu kanye nezinqumo lapho bebhekene nezinhlekelele zemvelo ukuhumusha ukuguquka kosikompilo endaweni ehlala ishintsha. Okutholwe yilolu cwaningo kubonisa ukuthi ngisho nangesikhathi sesomiso esinzima noma ezinye izehlakalo zemvelo ezibangelwa yingcindezi, abantu basebenzisa amasu amaningi okwehlisa ubungozi nomthelela wokushintsha kwesimo sezulu. Isici esinezindaba ezimnandi zokushintsha kwesimo sezulu kanye nokuphumula nenhlangano yezenhlalakahle ayeyeme kuphela kuzinselele ezibangwayo, futhi namathuba adalekayo. Ukubhekana nesomiso ngokusebenzisa amasu ahlukene okubhekana nako kokubili imiphakathi yakudala neyamanje kuthathwa njengobufakazi bokuthi abantu abazona izisulu ezilukhuni zokushintsha kwesimo sezulu. Amagama Asemqoka: imiphakathi eyinkinga, isikhathi se-Little Ice Age, isomiso nezikhathi zesimo esomile, indlela yokuziphilisa, uguquko