Occurrence, ecotoxicity, and photocatalytic remediation of antiretroviral drugs in global surface water matrices

Abstract

The increasing presence of pharmaceuticals, particularly antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), in wastewater has raised concerns regarding their environmental and health impacts. Photocatalysis, driven by advanced photocatalysts, such as coloured TiO2, ZnO, and composites with carbon-based materials, has shown promise as an effective method for degrading these pollutants. Despite significant laboratory-scale success, challenges remain in scaling this technology for real-world applications, particularly in terms of photocatalyst stability, the formation of toxic degradation by-products, and economic feasibility. This paper explores the current state of photocatalytic degradation for ARVDs, emphasizing the need for further research into degradation pathways, the development of more efficient and cost-effective photocatalysts, and the integration of photocatalysis into hybrid treatment systems. The future of photocatalysis in wastewater treatment hinges on improving scalability, reactor design, and hybrid systems that combine photocatalysis with traditional treatment methods to ensure comprehensive pollutant removal. Innovations in catalyst design and reactor optimization are essential for advancing photocatalysis as a viable solution for large-scale wastewater treatment.

Description

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL : FIGURE S1: Acute risk characterization of ARVDs (nevirapine (green), zidovudine (orange), lamivudine (blue), efavirenz (yellow), emtricitabine (grey), stavudine (red), tenofovir (purple), zalcitabine (brown), didanosine (pink), lopinavir (black), darunavir (green open circles), ritonavir (blue open circles), and abacavir (orange open circles)) obtained using measured concentrations in surface waters across the globe (F—France, G—Germany, K—Kenya, P—Poland, S—South Africa, and Z—Zambia) relative to no-effect concentrations for (a) fish, (b) algae, and (c) daphnia taxonomical groups. And FIGURE S2: Chronic risk characterization of ARVDs (nevirapine (green), zidovudine (orange), lamivudine (blue), efavirenz (yellow), emtricitabine (grey), stavudine (red), tenofovir (purple), zalcitabine (brown), didanosine (pink), lopinavir (black), darunavir (green open circles), ritonavir (blue open circles) and abacavir (orange open circles)) obtained using measured concentrations in the surface water across the globe (F—France, G—Germany, K—Kenya, P—Poland, S—South Africa, and Z—Zambia) relative to no-effect concentrations for (a) fish, (b) algae, and (c) daphnia taxonomical groups.

Keywords

Photocatalysis, Photocatalyst, TiO2, Degradation efficiency, Dosage, Wastewater, Antiretroviral drugs

Sustainable Development Goals

SDG-06: Clean water and sanitation

Citation

Ngwenya, P.; Tabana, L.S.; Tichapondwa, S.M.; Chirwa, E.M.N. Occurrence, Ecotoxicity, and Photocatalytic Remediation of Antiretroviral Drugs in Global Surface Water Matrices. Catalysts 2025, 15, 381. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040381.