The continental distribution of Theileria and Babesia species in African wild mammals : a systematic review and meta–analysis of molecular prevalence

Abstract

Tick–borne piroplasmids of the genera Theileria and Babesia are emerging threats at the wildlife–livestock–human interface, particularly in Africa, where ecosystems are rapidly changing due to anthropogenic pressures. This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesizes current knowledge on their occurrence and molecular prevalence of these piroplasmids in African wild mammals. A total of 56 studies met the inclusion criteria, identifying 24 recognized species of Babesia and Theileria species, along with an additional 17 species that have provisional/uncertain denomination across nine African countries. Of these, 47 studies were suitable for meta-analysis, revealing a high overall molecular prevalence of Theileria/Babesia spp. in wild mammals (62.4 %; CI: 39.3–82.8 %), with Babesia spp. generally more prevalent in wild carnivores, while Theileria spp. predominated in wild ruminants. In African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), pooled prevalence of T. parva, the agent of East Coast fever and Corridor disease, was estimated at 62.9 % (CI: 37.5–85.0 %), with significant geographic differences. Babesia bovis, the most pathogenic agent of bovine babesiosis, was rare in buffalo (0.4 %; CI: 0–6.5 %), whereas the less pathogenic B. occultans reached 23.3 % (CI: 16.2–31.3 %) in the same species and 30 % (CI: 15.2–47.3 %) in blue wildebeest (Connachaetes taurinus). Zoonotic B. microti was detected in non-human primates, wild felids, and rodents, and a B. odocoilei–like organism was identified in lions (Panthera leo). Our findings underline the ecological complexity and hidden burden of piroplasms in African wildlife and the potential for spillover to domestic animals and humans. This review provides the first continental-level synthesis of Theileria and Babesia distribution in African wild mammals and emphasizes the need for expanded and enhanced molecular monitoring in underrepresented countries and animal taxa, as well as extensive taxonomic clarification.

HIGHLIGHTS • First systematic review of Theileria and Babesia in African wild mammals, covering 56 studies across nine countries. • Identified 24 recognized piroplasmid species and 17 provisionally named taxa, highlighting substantial taxonomic gaps. • Molecular prevalence of piroplasms was 62.4%. Babesia dominated carnivores, Theileria ruminants. T. parva in buffalo 62.9%. • Detection of B. bovis in buffalo, B. occultans and zoonotic B. microti in non-human primates, wild felids and rodents. • Need for expanded molecular surveillance and taxonomic clarification of piroplasmid burden in African wildlife.