Secondary victimisation : the experiences of adult female victims of sexual offences

Abstract

Women who are sexually victimised are often burdened with the unique onus of not only proving the occurrence of their sexual victimisation, but also having to dismantle the conjecture and misperception surrounding their victimisation. Moreover, women who disclose their experiences of victimisation are often met with secondary victimisation, which results not only in considerable personal implications, but often serves as a silencing factor as well. Research addressing the secondary victimisation of sexual offence survivors (particularly within a societal context) does, however, remain sparse and a particular dearth in knowledge currently exists within the South African body of knowledge. The aim of the study was to explore the experiences of adult female survivors of sexual offences who were subjected to secondary victimisation. This aim informed the objectives of the study, namely to explore the nature of secondary victimisation experienced within the Criminal Justice System (CJS) and society, to describe the personal effect of the secondary victimisation on the victims and their process of healing, to ascertain the role of secondary victimisation in victims’ decision to report current and possible subsequent incidents, as well as to explore and describe measures that should be taken to avoid and/or reduce the occurrence of secondary victimisation. This was contextualised within a theoretical framework that encompassed the socio-structural perspective, feminist perspective, Menachem Amir’s perspective pertaining to patterns in forcible rape, as well as Martin Seligman’s learned helplessness theory. Additionally, these theoretical perspectives were coalesced into an integrated theoretical framework within which the subject matter was contextualised. The study focused on the narratives of nine adult female survivors of sexual offences who were selected by means of non-probability sampling (availability sampling). This was achieved by employing a qualitative approach, and conducting semi-structured individual interviews after which data was analysed by utilising deductive thematic data analysis. Findings revealed that participants experienced secondary victimisation on a societal level in the form of dismissal/denial of their experience, minimising of their experience, apathy, disempowering reactions, stigmatising and ostracising reactions and overt victim blaming. Within the CJS, participants reported experiencing inadequate service delivery, dismissal/denial of their experience, insensitivity, exploitation, traumatic cross-questioning and problematic procedures. This not only resulted in survivors feeling stuck in their process of healing, but also gave rise to a variety of adverse emotional effects, which were then internalised to form negative internal narratives. The internalisation of these negative beliefs, in turn, manifested in various adverse behavioural implications (including learned helplessness). As such, many survivors indicated that they either ceased disclosure of their victimisation to varying degrees, or considered ceasing disclosure (in the case of those engaged in the pursuit of justice within the CJS). Measures that were proposed in the prevention and/or reduction of secondary victimisation included awareness and education, improved specialised training for members of the CJS, adequate preparation of victims for the CJS process, as well as ongoing review and improvement of CJS procedures. The current enforcement of legal instruments and application of policies and measures aimed at eradicating gender-based discrimination and inequalities within the South African societal and political spheres remains insufficient in addressing underlying issues giving rise to gender-based offences. This includes aspects such as the misperceptions and myths that give rise to occurrences of secondary victimisation following the disclosure of sexual victimisation. As such, robust and ongoing revision and improvement is required in the implementation of current legal frameworks and measures that are intended to provide protection and equality to women in South Africa.