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Euthanasia methods in invertebrates : a critical narrative review of methodological and welfare standards
Bakker, Jaco; De la Garza, Melissa A.; Morel, Margot; Outwater, Anne H.; Chipangura, John Kudakwashe; Stumpel, Job B.G.; Vercammen, Francis; Lewbart, Gregory A.; Nederlof, Remco A. (MDPI, 2026-01)
Invertebrates are increasingly consumed and kept as pets, research models, and in zoological exhibits, creating a growing need to better understand their clinical management and welfare. However, the knowledge regarding nociception, pain perception, and euthanasia in invertebrates remains limited, and standardized protocols are largely absent. Current guidelines are incomplete, often anecdotal, and omit several major invertebrate phyla. To address this gap, we conducted a narrative review of the literature, aiming to critically evaluate existing euthanasia methods, associated welfare implications, and opportunities for refinement. The amount of peer-reviewed species-specific literature is limited and scattered. In addition, most described methods are insufficiently studied and/or do not align with our definition of euthanasia. Based on the available literature, and to provide practical guidance despite these limitations, we propose a two-step approach to invertebrate euthanasia. The first step consists of inducing anesthesia to achieve loss of responsiveness, followed by a second step; a terminal procedure involving physical or chemical destruction of the brain or major ganglia. Our review focuses on the application of this two-step approach. The effectiveness and humaneness of euthanasia techniques vary considerably across taxa and life stages. Substantial further research is required to validate and optimize humane end-of-life procedures for diverse invertebrate species. SIMPLE SUMMARY Euthanasia is an inevitability in the veterinary profession. The method of euthanasia used must rapidly induce loss of consciousness and death, be effective, and minimize the pain, fear, and distress experienced by the animal. Interference with euthanasia objectives, e.g., research, should be avoided if possible. Moreover, the method of euthanasia should be simple enough to be performed effectively by competent individuals. The availability of peer-reviewed literature specific to invertebrates is scattered and limited. Based on the available scientific evidence, the most effective methods of invertebrate euthanasia entail a two-step approach. Here, the first step consists of the induction of anesthesia to achieve loss of responsiveness, followed by a terminal second step, involving physical or chemical destruction of the brain or major ganglia. The effectiveness and perceived humaneness of euthanasia techniques vary considerably across taxa and life stages.
Median survival times are longer in azotemic cats that have a 25% or 50% reduction in creatinine at 24 or 48 hours, respectively, after subcutaneous ureteral bypass device placement
De Witt, Anika A.; Robinson, Genna F.; Zeiler, Gareth Edward; Berman, Chad Farryl; Elliott, Ross Christopher (American Veterinary Medical Association, 2026-02)
OBJECTIVE : To determine median survival time using predefined creatinine percentage changes after SC ureteral bypass (SUB) placement. METHODS : This was a retrospective cohort study. Data from cats admitted for SUB placement were collected between 2015 and 2022 from a single referral hospital. Serum creatinine values at presentation and at 24 and 48 hours after SUB placement and outcome data (dead or alive) were extracted, and percentage change was calculated. Cats with incomplete datasets or nonbenign obstruction were excluded. A priori decreases of 25% and 50% were regarded as acceptable changes at 24 or 48 hours, respectively. Median survival times were approximated using Kaplan-Meier curves. RESULTS : Records from 21 of 30 cats (14 female, 7 male) that were a median of 8 (7 to 10) years old had complete datasets for analysis. Median survival times were 241 (8, 719) and 989 (989, 1,510) days for cats that did not and did achieve the predefined decrease at 24 hours, respectively. Median survival times were 225 (8, 387) and 989 (2, 1,510) days for cats that did not and did achieve the predefined decrease at 48 hours, respectively. The overall median survival time was 387 (119, 989) days regardless of achieving the predefined percentage decreases. CONCLUSIONS : The median survival time was significantly longer in cats that achieved or exceeded the predefined percentage reduction in creatinine at 24 or 48 hours after SUB placement. CLINICAL RELEVANCE : Evaluating percentage changes in serial serum creatinine after SUB placement can be useful to indicate survival and longevity.
Subterranean mammalian societies : identity and social architecture in eusocial mole-rats
Hart, Daniel William; Jacobs, Paul Juan; Bennett, Nigel Charles (Elsevier, 2026-01)
Societies are more than groups of animals coexisting; they are structured, enduring communities defined by stable membership, shared identity and relationships that persist across generations. Among mammals, such societies are uncommon but reach their most extreme form in the eusocial African mole-rats, namely the naked mole-rat, Heterocephalus glaber, and the Damaraland mole-rat, Fukomys damarensis. Eusociality, well known from ants, bees and termites, is a social system loosely comparable to a monarchy, in which a single breeding queen and one or a few males monopolize the colony's reproduction, while other group members suppress their own reproductive potential to serve the needs of the colony. These mole-rats are among the only mammals to fully embody this system, forming long-lived, cooperative colonies with strict boundaries between colony members and outsiders. Yet their strategies for social cohesion diverge. Fukomys damarensis depends primarily on individual familiarity to maintain group identity, thereby limiting colony size. In contrast, H. glaber uses a shared colony scent and distinct colony-specific vocal dialect to support larger, scalable societies. By comparing these societal extremes, this review explores what makes societies stable, exclusive and resilient, while highlighting the gaps in our current knowledge. HIGHLIGHTS • We review eusocial African mole-rat society formation, maintenance and defence. • We compare diverging strategies of the naked and Damaraland mole-rat. • We explore what makes these societies stable, exclusive and resilient. • We also highlight gaps in the current knowledge on these two societies.
Depressive symptomatology and their correlates among caregivers of children and adolescents living with HIV in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Moyo, Reuben Christopher; Davids, Eugene Lee; Nyasha, Lovemore Sigwadi; Carries, Stanley; Moyo, Audrey; Gibbs, Andrew; Shai, Nwabisa; Closson, Kalysha; Washington, Laura; Sithole, Nokwanda; Bhana, Arvin; Mwandacha, Nelly; Kaida, Angela; Govindasamy, Darshini (Taylor and Francis, 2026)
BACKGROUND : Few studies have examined factors linked to depressive symptomatology among caregivers of children and adolescents living with HIV (CALHIV). This study estimated prevalence of depressive symptoms and identified associated factors among caregivers of CALHIV in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. METHODS : We used baseline data from a cluster-randomised controlled trial of the impact of a cash transfer program and an economic empowerment intervention on health and well-being caregivers of CALHIV. Depressive symptoms were assessed using 10-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-10), with score of ≥12 indicating presence depressive symptomatology. Correlates of depressive symptoms were identified using multilevel generalised linear models. RESULTS : The prevalence of depressive symptoms was 57% (95% CI: 51% – 63%). Factors associated with increased odds of depressive symptomatology were residing in peri-urban (OR = 4.80, p = 0.038), having any form of disability (OR = 8.12, p = 0.001), having existing medical condition (OR = 3.27, p = 0.009), experiencing physical abuse in the past 12 months (OR = 3.53, p = 0.020), and low social support (OR = 3.94, p = 0.005). CONCLUSION : The prevalence of depressive symptoms was high among Caregivers of CALHIV. These findings highlight the need for targeted, context-specific interventions that include mental health screening for caregivers to support their mental health and well-being.
Outbreaks of a native jewel beetle, Agrilus grandis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), on commercial black wattle, Acaciamearnsii, plantations in South Africa
Nel, Wilma Janine; Jali, Sandisiwe; Barnes, Irene; Wondafrash, Mesfin; Hurley, Brett Phillip (Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 2026-02)
In early 2024, an outbreak of an unknown wood-borer was observed in Acacia mearnsii De Wild (black wattle) compartments in the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, causing symptoms of excessive resin production. Larvae uncovered beneath the bark were morphologically identified as a flathead borer, prompting urgent investigation due to the historically low impact of wood-borers on black wattle in South Africa. DNA sequencing of the COI and CytB regions of the larvae failed to yield conclusive matches, so infested logs were collected and the infesting insects reared, resulting in the emergence of three adult beetles. Morphological examination of the adults revealed them as being Agrilus grandis Gory & Laporte 1839, a native African jewel beetle. Comparison to historical specimens housed in the FABI Insect Reference Collection based at the University of Pretoria revealed a previous, unpublished outbreak of the same species in Acacia mearnsii in 1974. However, this is the first official report of A. grandis infestations on A. mearnsii in South Africa.