Travellers' digital media use and risk perceptions: Implications for emerging destinations' digital media marketing and competitiveness

Abstract

The success of tourism lies in a destination’s competitiveness. This is determined by a destination’s ability to extend a mix of benefits distinct from what competition is offering; one of them being destination image. Behavioural intentions to revisit are fuelled by a positive brand image strengthened through destination marketing. The ultimate goal is to enhance destination competitiveness. Destination competitiveness is significantly influenced by travel risk perceptions. As a result, the recovery of a destination’s brand image is contingent on the way in which travel risk perceptions are managed. In addition, these perceptions are undeniably a strong precondition for behavioural intentions to revisit. Such perceptions can be shaped by the nature of information shared on social media about a destination’s resilience during a crisis. Tourists are more reliant on external sources of information, and therefore, find it risky to travel in an unsafe environment.

Destination image is shaped by travel risk perceptions, which in turn play a fundamental role in influencing revisit intentions. As a result, tourism demand is influenced by travel risk perceptions, especially during a crisis or pandemic such as COVID-19. The use of digital media in destination marketing has shown great potential in building competitive and resilient tourism destinations. Advances in Information and Communications Technology (ICT), therefore, act as an enabler of destination competitiveness especially when leisure tourists use digital media when visiting emerging destinations. Digital media marketing shows great potential to influence destination competitiveness through image by facilitating convenience and engagement with tourists. Digital media have eventually become a popular ‘accessory’ among travellers through their usage features.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of two demand conditions on the competitiveness of emerging destinations. The study was structured around two phases, therefore the two demand conditions were investigated as follows: Phase 1: travel risk perceptions amidst a crisis; Phase 2: digital media usage (i.e., technology readiness, technology acceptance, digital media preferences). In Phase 1, the relationship between destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit was tested. Further, moderation tests were done to determine the influence of travel risk perceptions on the relationship between destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit brands South Africa and Zimbabwe amidst a crisis, more specifically COVID-19.

In Phase 2, the study sought to determine the antecedents (technology readiness, technology acceptance, digital media preferences) and outcomes (destination image, behavioural intentions to revisit) of the use of different digital media by leisure tourists during travels. Understanding the above relationships can lead to effective understanding of how travel risk intentions influence behavioural intentions to revisit. As a result, the management of travel risk perceptions and effective application of digital media marketing, in turn, will lead to a competitive destination. The case studies of South Africa and Zimbabwe were used as two competing tourism destinations within Sub-Saharan Africa.

The study incorporated two theoretical foundations from which to study destination competitiveness via brand image. In Phase 1, the theory was built around branding and risk perceptions, while Phase 2 presented a theoretical foundation on technology adoption in order to contextualise leisure tourists’ technology readiness and acceptance to use different types of digital media during travel. The digital media under study were introduced and explained in view of their relevance to digital marketing in tourism. This presented an argumentation on the motivation of the study. The literature review started off with an examination of destination competitiveness models, current trends in international, emerging destinations, and Sub-Saharan Africa tourism was reviewed to provide a firm foundation of the background to the study.

This was followed by a review of literature on destination image, which is a key indicator of destination competitiveness. Given the impact of COVID-19 on destination competitiveness, travellers’ risk perceptions could not be overlooked. Literature was examined to have more understanding of leisure tourists’ travel risk perceptions and their behavioural intentions to revisit the two emerging destinations during the COVID-19 pandemic. This provided the basis for arguing in favour of the use of digital media during travel, especially during a pandemic like COVID-19. This was a necessary call due to the rapid decline in arrivals globally caused by COVID-19. Literature was also reviewed to determine the extent of ICT adoption in emerging destinations as well as ICT readiness and destination images of those destinations.

Two conceptual models were developed for each Phase. In Phase 1, the independent variables included cognitive and affective brand image, while the dependent variable was behavioural intentions to revisit, along with risk perceptions as moderator. In Phase 2, the independent variables were technology readiness, technology acceptance and digital media preferences, with digital media usage, destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit as dependents respectively. To achieve the study aim and achieve the objectives of the two phases, a post-positivist research paradigm was adopted, where a modified quantitative technique was applied.

A cross-sectional survey was done using an online structured questionnaire containing a few open ended questions to bring clarity on the issue of travel risk perceptions. A cross-sectional survey was done using an online structured questionnaire containing a few open ended questions to bring clarity on the issue of travel risk perceptions. However, while the study might be considered generalisable due to the extensive quantitative data gathered from the population, the qualitative data cannot be viewed in the same light. Qualitative data in this study merely reflects the travel risk perceptions of a few individuals. However, despite the limited amount of data on travel risk perceptions, some interesting trends were observed that warrant further investigation in future studies.

A total sample of 251 was achieved of which 124 had visited South Africa (SA), 184 Zimbabwe (Zim), and 57 had visited both countries. The questionnaire was hosted on the Qualtrics platform from 23 November 2020 to 31 May 2021. South African Tourism (SAT) and ZIMPARKS also distributed the questionnaire to international leisure tourists, in their databases, who had visited South Africa and Zimbabwe respectively. Having encountered a slow response rate (considering that the survey was launched a few months after COVID-19 had started), the researcher also shared the survey link through other means (i.e., via LinkedIn and colleagues). In both stages, convenient random sampling was conducted through available cases and snowball sampling.

Analysis in Phase 1 was done through thematic analysis for qualitative data. Scale refinement for destination image, travel risk perceptions and behavioural intentions, was done through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and lastly, moderated multiple regressions were done to determine whether travel risk perceptions influence the relationship between destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit. In Phase 2, factor dimensionality and reliability were done through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to confirm Technology Readiness Index (TRI) and Technology Acceptance model (TAM) factors. EFA was done for digital media usage. During the EFA, digital media usage was split into utilitarian and hedonic use. A series of regressions (multiple and hierarchical) were done to test the hypothesised relationships between TRI, TAM, digital media preferences, destination image and behavioural intentions to revisit variables.

Results from Phase 1 indicated that risk perceptions had varied effects on the relationships between affective and cognitive brand image and behavioural intentions to revisit. During EFA, cognitive was split into two factors (i.e., Cognitive image 1 and Cognitive image 2) for both countries. Affective image emerged as one factor for South Africa and two for Zimbabwe (i.e., Affective image 1 and Affective image 2). Results show that in the absence of risk, both cognitive and affective images significantly positively influenced tourists’ behavioural intentions to revisit destinations South Africa and Zimbabwe. In the case of South Africa, the effect of Cognitive image 1 (shopping facilities, man-made attractions, services, general, transportation infrastructure and nightlife) on behavioural intentions to revisit was significantly moderated by travel risk perceptions.

For Zimbabwe, travel risk perceptions significantly moderated the effect of Cognitive image 2 (scenery and landscape, natural attractions, climate, available tourist activities and hospitality of the locals) on behavioural intentions to revisit. None of South Africa’s affective image attributes were moderated by travel risk perceptions. However, for Zimbabwe, both Affective image 1 (relaxing, safe, accessible, innovative, and progressive) and Affective image 2 (interesting, authentic, entertaining, and pleasant) were significantly moderated by travel risk perceptions. The above variations indicate that destination image varies between destinations and so do travel risk perceptions.

High risk factors (drawn from EFAs) such as concern over the possibility of contracting COVID-19 during travel, had more influence on the above relationships. Furthermore, the feeling of coming into contact with strangers during the COVID-19 pandemic was also a major risk due to fear of contracting the virus when travelling to the two destinations. Overall, results show that the existing destination brand image perceptions were not strong enough for both South Africa and Zimbabwe (even though they may be positive) to keep the revisit intentions positive given the contagion and life-threatening nature of COVID-19.

Digital media marketing has the power to portray a destination’s image as risky or safe. This is because a destination’s brand image can either be induced or organic depending on how it is portrayed in the media. Tourists depend on media for important destination information, therefore digital media marketing could emerge as an effective way of brand image recovery during and post crisis. The main thrust of Phase 2 is, therefore, to build onto the significant role of digital media-enabled destination brand image on behavioural intentions to revisit and ultimately competitiveness.

Results from Phase 2 show that technology readiness and technology acceptance statistically significantly influence digital media usage by leisure tourists visiting the two emerging destinations. Results also show that hedonic and utilitarian digital media usage influence the affective image of a destination, while only utilitarian digital media usage influenced behavioural intentions to revisit. Findings show that despite high levels of technology insecurity, leisure tourists still used immersive digital media (3-D virtual reality videos and 3-D city tour guide), recommender apps (Foursquare) and social media sites (YouTube, TripAdvisor, and Facebook) during travel.

Preferences for digital media that allowed online sharing of tourism experiences and those that provided travel safety information were the main antecedents to hedonic and utilitarian digital media usage, after accounting for technology readiness and technology acceptance. Affective image emerged as the only destination image factor influencing behavioural intentions to revisit, after accounting for technology readiness, technology acceptance, digital media usage and digital media preferences. This was true for both destinations.

The study contributes to our theoretical understanding of the study of destination competitiveness underpinned by destination brand image. Despite the extensive research on destination competitiveness, a major theoretical contribution was the development of the digital media preferences scale, where six features emerged as measurement items. This study also makes a novel contribution to the body of knowledge and destination marketing practice by revealing the specific digital media preferences linked to usage type (hedonic and utilitarian). In addition, the study also revealed specific digital media preferences linked to positive destination image formations and those linked to behavioural intentions to revisit.

This is facilitated by an investigation of the effects of travel risk perceptions amidst a crisis and digital media usage on a destination’s competitiveness. Within the framework of competitiveness, destination images vary between destinations, as well as the digital media usage profile of travellers. This serves as a learning point for policy makers and Destination Marketing Organisations (DMO) to consider hedonic and utilitarian affordances of different types of digital media when formulating digital media marketing strategies. This study helps marketers understand how travel risk perceptions, digital media preferences and digital media-enabled destination (cognitive and affective) images influence destination competitiveness. Policy makers and DMOs can mitigate travel risk perceptions through effectively applying relevant digital media types that enable portrayal of safety in different formats. This will build confidence among travellers during uncertain times such as the COVID-19 pandemic as the background to this study.

A call to action for incessant research is inevitable, given the continuous advances in technological developments and the dynamic nature of destination competitiveness. Over the years, international travel has intensified rivalry among competing destinations. As a result, a destination’s brand image and tourists’ travel behaviour have an exponential relationship with the competitiveness of a destination.