The purpose of this contribution is to address the translation problems related to the term
“sword” as a weapon in the Maccabean books. The translation problem becomes evident in
the various occurrences of ῥομφαία, μάχαιρα and τὸ ξίφος in the source text of 1-2 Maccabees,
as well as the frequency of the words in these books. Swords are historically contextual, and
reveal important information about the nature of confrontation and attack strategies, as well
as the relationship between attackers and victims, as it would determine whether soldiers
would use them to stab, slash or cut their enemies. This is important information for
understanding the translation context in which a particular type of sword was used, especially
in the military context of the Maccabees. It is therefore clear that a definite distinction should
be made between the various Greek terms used in 1 and 2 Maccabees for “sword”.
The ῥομφαία was a longer type of sword, longer than one meter in length, with a broad
blade that was only slightly curved, or even straight. The weapon was designed to serve as a
stab and slashing weapon. The blade was fitted to a shaft or handle, which was only slightly
shorter than the blade itself. The blade normally had only one cutting edge, although there
were also some exceptions to this rule. It was a dreaded weapon because of its cutting or
slashing power. The occurrences of the term ῥομφαία in 1 and 2 Maccabees can be found in
the context of the wars and battles in which the Jews were involved with the Seleucids and
Ptolemies.
In ancient war contexts, the Greek sword, known as a μάχαιρα, refers to a weapon in the
form of a short sword or dagger, of which the blade had a slightly curved cutting edge on the
one side and was level on the opposite side. It was designed to serve as a cutting weapon
rather than a stab weapon. More detailed research into the Maccabean war context indicates
that during the first phase of the Maccabees, some Jewish units were equipped with shields
and such swords, similar to the classic Tragians and Scythians. Various sizes and forms of
μάχαιρα, which was regionally specific and not necessarily uniquely Greek in nature, were in
circulation. In biblical literature, violent death during wars or persecution often occurs by
μάχαιρα as a weapon. Although the contexts in which the term μάχαιρα is used in 1 and 2
Maccabees are also contexts of war, the impression here is more that of close combat. The
fact that the term μάχαιρα is used only a third in contrast to the two-thirds of the occurrences
of ῥομφαία in 1-2 Maccabees, as well as the specific contexts of 1 Maccabees 3:12, 4:6 and 2 Mac 5:2-3, seems to create the impression that the μάχαιρα was probably a hand weapon
that was not widely used by the Jews at the time of the books of Maccabees.
The ξίφος was a short stab sword or dagger with a narrow, double-edged blade and
particularly sharp point. The term ξίφος is often generically applied in Aeolian or Attic Greek
for a sword. It was especially used in hand-to-hand combat. The term ξίφος is not used in 1
Maccabees and occurs only twice in 2 Maccabees. It is clear from the context that ξίφος in
these two instances refers to a short stab sword or dagger as a personal weapon.
During the investigation, it has become clear that the existing mainstream English, German
and Afrikaans translation traditions have predominantly and consistently chosen to translate
all three Greek terms almost without excepton generically as “sword”. During the recent
translation process of the new Afrikaans translation, this translation has largely succumbed
to the peer pressure of existing translation traditions, but has still managed to take the first
offensive steps in the area of the translation problem related to the sword as an ancient weapon.
This was done by specifying the type of sword mentioned in the source text in a footnote in a
few strategic places.
Hierdie bydrae het ten doel om die vertaalproblematiek betreffende die term “swaard” as
wapentuig in die Makkabeërboeke onder die loep te neem. Die vertaalprobleem bestaan daaruit
dat die onderskeie betekenisse van ῥομφαία, μάχαιρα en τὸ ξίφος in die bronteks van
Makkabeërs in die nuwe Afrikaanse vertaling (NAV) na vore moet kom en dat die woorde nie
deurgaans met “swaard” vertaal moet word nie. Dit word ondersteun deur die frekwensie van
die woorde in hierdie boeke. Swaarde is histories konteksgebonde, en onthul belangrike
inligting oor die aard van die konfrontasie en aanvalstrategie, asook die onderlinge verhouding
tussen die aanvaller en slagoffer, aangesien dit bepaal het of die soldaat die vyand daarmee
sou steek, sny of kap. Dit is belangrike inligting vir die vertaling om die konteks te verstaan
waarin ʼn bepaalde tipe swaard gebruik is – veral in die militêre konteks van die Makkabeërboeke. Dis dus duidelik dat ʼn besliste onderskeid getref behoort te word tussen die verskillende
Griekse terme wat in 1 en 2 Makkabeërs vir “swaard” aangewend word.
Tydens die ondersoek het dit algaande duidelik geword dat die bestaande hoofstroomEngelse, Duitse en Afrikaanse vertaaltradisies oorwegend al drie Griekse terme feitlik deurgaans
generies met “swaard” vertaal. Tydens die onlangse vertaalproses van die NAV swig ook
hierdie vertaling grotendeels onder die groepsdruk van bestaande vertaaltradisies, maar slaag
nogtans daarin om die eerste offensiewe treë te gee op die terrein van die vertalingsproblematiek
betreffende die swaard as antieke wapentuig. Dit is gedoen deur op enkele strategiese plekke
by wyse van ʼn voetnoot die tipe swaard waarvan in die bronteks sprake is, te spesifiseer.
