An investigation of Gender Mainstreaming in Disarmament, Demobolisation, and Reintegration (DDR) Programmes : the case of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo

Abstract

Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes aim to contribute to sustainable peace of a country after a violent conflict. In the early 1990s, DDR programmes were predominantly aimed at male combatants who were members of armed forces. Women in armed movements were generally viewed as non-combatants serving the needs of their male counterparts. Their agency – the ability to make choices and to transform these choices into desirable outcomes – was overlooked. In 1997, the United Nations (UN) Economic and Social Council recognised that women, like men, should participate in peace processes as equal partners and beneficiaries. This recognition paved the way for gender mainstreaming within UN peace operations, which meant that all planned actions, legislations, policies, and programmes should be assessed for their implications for men and women. The commitment to gender mainstreaming within the UN was reaffirmed with the adoption of the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (UNSCR 1325) in October 2000. The aim of this research is to investigate gender mainstreaming in official regional and national DDR programmes since the adoption of UNSCR 1325, focusing on the case of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). This research identified that gender mainstreaming has been incorporated, to an extent, within DDR programmes in the DRC. Women, however, are still viewed as passive victims by international and national agencies. Women’s agency within DDR programmes is primarily denied. When comparing the overall findings of the investigation and the objectives of UNSCR 1325, one can agree that gendered initiatives and attempts within the DRC have not ensured effective peace support operations, have not focused on gender equality, have not dealt with men and women in the same manner, and women were primary not given opportunities to play an equal part in economic, political, or social development within the DRC as active agents. The investigation of gender mainstreaming within the DRC has furthermore provided knowledge in that, although governments commit to UNSCR 1325, without political will, gender mainstreaming will not be enforced.